Jean Piaget

Sohan Modgil, Celia Modgil, Geoffrey Brown, S. Modgil, C. Modgil, G. Brown

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2013
• eBook ISBN: 9781135659592
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Developmental Psychology
• Index: Psychology

This volume contains the proceedings of the conference 'Jean Piaget (1896-1980): A British Tribute - The Continuing Debate', held at Brighton Polytechnic on 22-23 May 1981. The collection of papers goes beyond a particular event which took place at a specific time. It stands on its own as a sustained inquiry as to how Piaget's theory is seen in relation to a range of areas of knowledge. Pairs of academics from various disciplines who have worked on aspects of Piagetian theory engaged in 'for and against' debates. The scope of the volume is therefore interdisciplinary.

Part 1
Editors’ introduction

1 Jean Piaget (1896-1980): the continuing debate

Sohan and Celia Modgil

Piaget has devoted a lifetime's work to the formulation of a theory of knowledge: of how the individual comes to know his world. He did not confine epistemology to philosophy but more widely related it to the human sciences. His psychological investigations demonstrated the childhood origins of human knowledge in numerous spheres: logic, space, time, mathematics, science, morality, play and language. Concurrently, psychological processes, reasoning, perception, imagery, memory, imitation and action received analysis.

However, Piaget himself modestly claimed that he had 'laid bare a more or less evident general skeleton which remains full of gaps so that when these gaps will be filled the articulations will have to be differentiated, but the general lines of the system will not be changed' (Sinclair de Zwart, 1977, p. 1). That the theory will be open-ended and tentative and subject to revisions is, in part, a validation of it as a developmental theory which is developing.

Modgil (1974), Modgil and Modgil (1976), an eight-volume series, and Modgil and Modgil (1980) bear witness to the number of experts in a wide variety of fields who see the potential of Piagetian theory. However, after many euphoric years in accord with the predictions of Piaget, the discrepancies of aspects of the theory, the omissions, replicatory and related research and alternative interpretations are currently being highlighted.

Most critics of Piaget would agree with Boden (1979) that, 'despite all the criticisms, there is a rich store of psychological insights and theoretical speculations, and a profusion of intriguing empirical observations and remarkably ingenious experiments, to be found in Piaget's pioneering work'. Donaldson (1978) argues that the evidence now compels us to reject certain features of Jean Piaget's theory but acknowledges the positive influence of Piaget's views on her own psychological writings. Siegel (1978) identifies a unifying theme throughout her collection of critical essays: the consideration of theoretical viewpoints other than Piaget's. 'When Piagetian theory cannot explain a particular set of findings, it is obvious that other theories must be considered.' It is, however, of interest that Siegel comments that 'no one theory predominates'.

It is the purpose of this introductory section to outline some of the elements of Piagetian theory which have been subject to initial questioning. However, as Boden (1979), Donaldson (1978) and Siegel (1978) suggest, it is difficult to present these criticisms without accompanying counter-arguments or acknowledgments of positive elements.

Existing Issues of Debate

Methodology - performance /competence

The earliest criticisms of Piaget's work involved his sampling techniques and lack of statistical treatment. However, Piaget's clinical method can be seen to have redressed the balance in relation to quantitative and qualitative analysis of data. Siegel (1978) argues on the basis of experimentation that Piagetian results are primarily a consequence of the linguistic demands of the concrete-operational tests. Brown and Desforges (1979) focus on the various aspects of the demands of a task which might defeat a child and lead to an underestimation of his competence: 'Piaget's tasks are cloaked in language.' Boden (1979) draws similar attention: 'one of the methodological problems is to decide when a child's failure is due to a lack of Piagetian structures or general principles of thinking and when it is due to other factors (such as ignorance, incomprehension or short memory-span)'. Donaldson (1978) and Elliot and Donaldson (1982) have further focused on the misinterpretation of questions and instructions during Piaget-type interviews. In counter-argument, Sinclair de Zwart (1982) states that the various conservation concepts are key notions in physics, and that the history of science shows their gradual, often difficult, elaboration by scientists. The enormous bulk of data, both in verbal and nonverbal tasks, obtained with thousands of children speaking many different languages, show clearly the type of pre-theories children have about epistemologically important notions. The tasks were intended to study the epistemic development of certain concepts in the child, not as a set of tests to determine children's cognitive levels. Donaldson (1978) would favour the use of familiar materials as opposed to the standard Piagetian materials: children's capabilities are likely to be at their greatest in contexts that are most related to their experiences. Tamburrini (1982), however, focuses on the educational limitations of contextually bound competences. With reference to Donaldson's distinction between 'embedded' and 'disembedded' thought, she comments that disembedded thought must inevitably entail competences that are generalizable and stable, the competences that, it has been argued, are assessed by Piagetian tests, in contrast to situation-specific competences.

Highly abstract theory

Some critics object that Piaget's views are so vague as to be irrefutable. Boden (1979) questions whether Piagetian terms such as equilibrium, assimilation and accommodation offer explanations of cognitive growth or polysyllabic descriptions of it. An abstract, systematizing concept must be amenable to significantly parallel specifications at more detailed empirical levels - many would agree that his theory does not fulfil this requirement. His account of the nature, preconditions and results of the various mental transformations underlying cognitive achievements is too broadly sketched to express or properly differentiate between them. He does not specify in sufficient detail precisely how the transformations he postulates are effected, or precisely what the transformations are (Boden, 1979). It would seem, as cited above, that Piaget would not be averse to these gaps being filled.

Stages

It is perhaps appropriate to suggest that the Piagetian stage concept has received imbalanced attention, to the detriment of other key factors in Piagetian theory. It is the aspect which has most readily appealed to educational application attempts. The notion most confounding the critics is Piaget's claim that the developmental stages are qualitatively different, but at the same time he states that the transitional process is gradual - 'horizontal décalage'. It would be expected that such profound qualitatively different structures would be apparent in all areas at the same time.

Brown and Desforges (1979) elaborate that the search for a structure irrespective of content has led to generalities which cannot be sustained. It would seem more appropriate to attempt to locate cognitive structures within specific content domains and subsequently to identify any generalities after sufficient taxonomies have been pursued. The notion of 'stage' creates more conceptual problems than it solves.

It would seem that Genevan workers are intent to reduce the importance of the stage issue: operational structures provide an interpretive framework to infer the lower and upper limits of a child's concepts, but cannot explain all facts of cognitive behaviour (Karmiloff-Smith and Inhelder, 1975); the concept of stage does not serve a central function in Piaget's theory (Gruber and Vonè1979); 'It is essentially a descriptive concept that accounts for the fact that any change, in order to be perceived at all as change must be dually composed of invariance and transformation' - other descriptions of development do not guarantee the principles of differentiation and hierarchical integration (Voneche and Bovet, 1982).

Underestimation of the complexity of children's cognitive achievements

Emanating particularly from child development researchers is the accusation directed at Piaget of the underestimation of the competence of children at a given age; that he is unaware of the large variety of subtly different psychological processes that might contribute to a given achievement. Boden (1979) reminds, however, that this identification needs to be set against the fact that for many years it was Piaget himself who was outstanding in pointing out some of the structural complexities of behaviours that others saw as relatively simple skills. Boden reviews recent child development research and relates it to appropriate Piagetian stages.

Logical model

In addition to questions 01 the reliability 01 his logic by logicians (Parsons, 1960; Ennis, 1978), Piaget's expression of his theory of intelligence in a highly formalized manner in logical and algebraic terms has not always received appreciation. He has often been accused of overestimating the rationality of adult thinking and of concentrating too much on mathematical and scientific contexts. However, as Boden points out, Piaget was aiming for a precise and qualitative formal specification of the development and functioning of the structured mechanisms and transformational processes by which intelligence is generated. Piaget raised the questions of computational ideas for articulating the inner dynamics of psychological feedback and kept them alive in a period when the conceptual tools for their more precise and detailed formulations were not yet available.

Language

It is a common criticism that Piaget has not given sufficient attention to language. Sinclair de Zwart (1982) has acknowledged that Piaget's contribution to the understanding of language is small but emphasizes its importance because of the profound issues he has raised.

This section has, therefore, been presented as a brief scenario from which will follow the tribute to Piaget. (More extended discussions can be obtained from: 'British Journal of Psychology', May 1982; Modgil and Modgil, 1980; and Modgil and Modgil, 1982.) This tribute will take the form of further debate in relation to the already stated and further issues in the continuing attempt to determine the validity and future relevance of Piaget's work.

Continuing the Debate: The Strategy of the Book

The volume provides theoretical analyses, supported by research, of aspects of Piaget's theory presented predominantly either negatively or positively by pairs of distinguished academics representing particular areas of knowledge. Each paper includes an introductory consideration of the area of knowledge involved, together with discussion and analysis comprising a clear statement of how significant aspects of Piaget's theory, within the framework of Piagetian theory in general, are seen predominantly either negatively or positively to relate to the represented discipline. Eight areas of knowledge are covered: cross-cultural psychology; education; educational psychology; language; moral development; philosophy; social psychology; and sociology.

Margaret Boden, in the introductory chapter, recalls Piaget's biologically grounded epistemology requiring interdisciplinary effort. She outlines recent research in biology, embryology and philosophy that is consonant with Piaget's epistemological aims.

In the area of cross-cultural psychology, Barbara Lloyd assesses the Piagetian contribution to cross-cultural studies, whereas Sid Irvine analyses the existing data on conservation tasks administered within a range of cultures. He focuses in particular on the necessity to consider language structure as the key cross-cultural variable in traditional Piagetian tasks.

Kenneth MacKay argues that Piaget's influence on education is only beginning to be felt; it is the unifying epistemological theory from which more precise psychological theories of development, learning and instruction may be derived. The real impact of Piaget's work has been in broadening and intensifying the educational debate. Following a review of weaknesses inherent in the application of Piagetian theory to education, Derek Boyle, noting Piaget's lack of attention to language, stipulates that linguistic experience is of prime importance and that more attention should be paid to using language more effectively as a means of instruction at all ages.

John Sants analyses Piaget's attitudes to education and concludes that it is his methods in new (particularly social) applications rather than his theories which will continue to be educationally productive. Geoffrey Brown argues that Piagetian theory is at odds with the educator's view of the world in many respects, and he particularly questions the relevance for education of operatory structures and the process of equilibration.

Peter Lloyd acknowledges the contribution of Piaget to the understanding of language but argues that such understanding profits more from his method than his theory. James Russell does not reflect Piaget's thesis that the child's early interactions with the concrete world build, at a nonconscious level, the foundations upon which later conceptual linguistic structures are established. Rather than regarding the structures as really active constructions as Piaget, Russell suggests they are elaborations of innate schemes. Among a number of assumptions made in this context is that cognitive structuring at an epistemic but non-verbal level does not alter with the acquisition of basic verbal concepts relevant to conservation: competence in conservation is present before such a judgment can be given in answer to a question.

Nicholas Emler illustrates Piaget's influence on the moral development sphere through outlining three themes emanating from Piaget's pioneering work. Emler gives particular attention to the theme he considers to reflect most accurately Piaget's original intentions: the treatment of moral development as a function of social relationships. This divergence of emphasis from individual thinker to special participant promises a fruitful integration between developmental and social psychology in this area. Peter Tomlinson, while acknowledging the relevant and conceptual resources in Piaget's work, argues that research in moral developmental issues will be enhanced through being informed by alternative constructs and paradig...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Contributors
• Part 1 Editors' introduction
• Part 2 Introduction
• Part 3 Cross-cultural psychology
• Part 4 Education
• Part 5 Educational psychology
• Part 6 Language
• Part 7 Moral development
• Part 8 Philosophy
• Part 9 Social psychology
• Part 10 Sociology
• Part 11 Conclusion
• Name index