Homoeroticism in Imperial China

A Sourcebook

Mark Stevenson, Cuncun Wu, Mark Stevenson, Cuncun Wu

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2013
• Print ISBN: 9780415551441
• eBook ISBN: 9781135131753
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Literatura
• Subtopic: Colecciones literarias asiáticas

Bringing together over sixty pre-modern Chinese primary sources on same-sex desire in English translation, Homoeroticism in Imperial China is an important addition to the growing field of the comparative history of sexuality and provides a window onto the continuous cultural relevance of same-sex desire in Chinese history.

Negotiating what can be a challenging area for both specialists and non-specialists alike, this sourcebook provides:

• accurate translations of key original extracts from classical Chinese
• concise explanations of the context and significance of each entry
• translations which preserve the aesthetic quality of the original sources

An authoritative and well organised guide and introduction to the original Chinese sources, this sourcebook covers histories and philosophers, poetry, drama (including two complete plays), fiction (including four complete short stories and full chapters from longer novels) and miscellanies. Each of these sections are organised chronologically, and as well as the general introduction, short introductions are provided for each genre and source.

Revealing what is a remarkably sophisticated and complex literary tradition, Homoeroticism in Imperial China is an essential sourcebook for students and scholars of Imperial Chinese history and culture and sexuality studies.

Part 1 Histories and philosophers

Chinese history before 1912 can be broadly divided into two periods: early China (up to 221 BCE) and imperial China (after 221 BCE). Records have been kept and preserved in China since the appearance of writing around 1200 BCE, remains of which survive in the form of recovered Shang dynasty oracle-bone inscriptions. Deliberate collection and compilation of transmitted traditions and historical sources continued to develop from the late Shang (c. 1570–1045 BCE) to China's unification under the first emperor Qin Shihuang (Qin dynasty, 221–207 BCE) (Nivison 1999: 746–7), and the textual sources that were passed down from early China contain valuable information on many aspects of pre-imperial or pre-Qin society. It was during this period, too, that the venerable classics which guided and inspired subsequent eras of Chinese civilization took shape.

In the Former Han dynasty (202 BCE–8 CE), which followed the Qin, two projects took shape that would have momentous consequences for Chinese historiography and culture. The first was the monumental Records of the Historian (see below) prepared and written by the father and son team Sima Tan (d. 110 BCE) and Sima Qian (145–c. 86 BCE), a survey of political history, personalities and culture from the Yellow Emperor to Emperor Wu of the Han that would influence the model for subsequent individual dynastic histories. The second occurred not long afterward, namely the reorganization and considerable rewriting of the texts collected in the Han imperial library by another father and son team, Liu Xiang (79–8 BCE, see 1.6 below) and Liu Xin (46 BCE–23 CE), at the behest of Emperor Cheng (32–7 BCE), ‘sorting them into discrete books and chapters, deleting redundancies, translating the various archaic characters into a standardized script, and producing definitive fair copies on which all subsequent editions of the earliest texts have been based’ (Shaughnessy 2006: 2). In the process they contributed to the formation of the view China would have of its early history and values for the next two thousand years.

As might be expected, China's standard dynastic histories record accounts that more often than not reflect problems of statecraft, power and political relations. Beyond these areas of consequence sexuality is of only oblique concern, but it turns out that sexuality – via concerns with pleasure, the self, and public good – did have quite a lot to do with statecraft and power continuing from the earliest times (Nylan 2001; Goldin 2005). While there are from time to time general remarks on the perils of good-looking men at court, the relationship between historical writing and the continuing legitimacy of the imperial court has nevertheless meant that almost all mention of same-sex desire in historical works involves the figure of the ruler, be he a king, emperor, prince or duke. Beginning with the Records of the Historian it was not uncommon for standard dynastic histories (compiled in the early years of each succeeding dynasty) to contain a chapter specifically treating the biographies of favoured courtiers (ningxing 佞幸), including their erotic links with the emperor. Such episodes should be understood in the context of ongoing tensions between aristocratic, bureaucratic, eunuch, military, and intellectual factions at court that are continuously played out through the entire span of Chinese pre-imperial and imperial history.

1.1 Extract from Remainder of the Zhou Documents (Yi Zhou shu), fourth century BCE

The Yi Zhou shu or Remainder of the Zhou Documents is a collection of early Chinese historical and political documents, the majority of which date to the Warring States period, around the late fourth century BCE (Shaughnessy 1997: 40). According to Luo Jiaxiang (2006) the ‘Martial Reputation’ chapter of Remainder of the Zhou Documents is from no later than the early Spring and Autumn period. It consists of a short discourse on aspects of ‘martiality’ (wu 武) in statecraft. The comments on good looking men and good looking women are also found in the Strategies of the Warring States extract (1.5).

From the ‘Martial Reputation’ (Wu cheng) chapter

Good-looking men imperil (po 破) those of high nobility (lao 老, the eminent), good-looking women imperil royal advisors, immodest schemes imperil statecraft, immodest talents imperil timely progression, immodest entertainments imperil moral norms, immodest words imperil genuineness, [each of which is] the erosion (hui 毀) of martiality.

1.2 Extract from The Annals of Master Yan (Yanzi Chunqiu), fourth century BCE(?)

The Annals of Master Yan is of obscure origin. Sato Masayuki writes: ‘There is widespread agreement that the Yanzi Chunqiu … was an anthology of the writings of Jixia scholars.¹ It is quite probable that it was composed by followers of Chunyu Kun [fourth century BCE ]’ (2003: 211). The work consists of invented dialogues and anecdotes relating to Yan Ying (d. 500 BCE), a contemporary of Confucius and a minister in the state of Qi. An influential political philosopher often referred to in Spring and Autumn (770–476 BCE) texts, Yan Ying was by all accounts an intelligent counsellor, not without a sense of humour, and Sima Qian notes in his Record of the Historian that the jester-philosopher Chunyu Kun was a great admirer of his legacy. In the passage translated here we can note at least two related and continuing themes in the treatment of homoerotic desire in Chinese history. The first is the treatment of hierarchy in the tale, and how rank must be respected. A plume-preparer was a minor-official post responsible for readying plumes for the decoration of carriages and banners, and the word here translated as ‘dare’ (jian 僭, lit. overstep one's authority, usurp) refers specifically to transgression of rank. The second matter of interest is that there is no hint of any disgust in relation to same-sex desire per se, only anger that it is directed inappropriately upward in rank.

Outer Chapters, Second Part, ‘Duke Jing intends to execute the plume-preparer, Yanzi considers it inappropriate’

Duke Jing [of Qi] really was good-looking. There was a plume-preparer who dared to peer at Duke Jing. Duke Jing said to one of his attendants: ‘Ask him why he dares to peer at Us.’ The plume-preparer answered, ‘Whether I tell the truth or not, I cannot escape execution. It is because I privately find Your Majesty good-looking.’ The Duke then said, ‘So, this fellow lusts after (se 色)² Us! Then have him executed!’ Ignoring protocol Yanzi rushed to see him, saying, ‘I have heard that you are angry with the plume-preparer.’ The Duke said, ‘Indeed. He has lusted after Us, and so We will have him executed.’ Yanzi answered, ‘I have heard that rejecting affection goes against principle, and responding to love with hatred is inauspicious. Although he has lusted after your majesty, to kill him would be inappropriate.’ The Duke said, ‘Ah, is that so? Then have him scrub Our back when We take Our bath.’

1.3 Extract from Han Feizi (Han Feizi), third century BCE

Han Feizi is a collection of lessons on government and bureaucracy, mostly from the hand of the third-century BCE political philosopher Han Fei (d. 223 BCE). Despite this unlikely origin, the story of the shared peach became one of the most cited passages in the history of Chinese homoerotic writing. In later periods the phrases ‘shared peach’ (fentao 分桃 or ‘half-eaten peach’ (yutao 餘桃) became widely recognized allusions (or terms) for male same-sex attraction. Squire Mi Xia (Mi Zi Xia) also came to represent something of an ideal lover. From other passages in Han Feizi it is clear that the Duke of Wei (衛君) associated with Squire Mi Xia was Duke Ling of Wei (534–493 BCE), a contemporary of Confucius and ruler of the state of Wei toward the end of the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BCE). Duke Ling is reputed to have been a man of very loose morals and a perverse ruler. The story recounted in Han Feizi neither condemns nor recommends homoerotic desire. While the passage does not explicitly identify a sexual relationship, the sharing of the peach nevertheless has powerfully erotic overtones. ‘Love’ (ai 愛) in this passage is used to describe affection in hierarchically upward and downward directions, while also being linked in this instance to perceived physical attractiveness.

The shared peach episode from Chapter 12, ‘On the Pitfalls of Persuasion’

In days of yore Squire Mi Xia³ attracted the favour of the Duke of Wei. Under the law of the state of Wei anyone riding on the Duke's carriage without permission would be punished by having their feet severed. One day the mother of Squire Mi Xia fell ill and someone came that night to inform Squire Mi. Without consulting anyone Squire Mi left in the Duke's carriage. On hearing of this the Duke praised him, ‘Such filial piety! Because of his mother he ignored the punishment of having his feet severed.’ On another occasion he accompanied the Duke on a stroll in the fruit orchard. Biting into a peach he found it delicious; not finishing it he gave half to the Duke to eat. The Duke said, ‘Such love he has for me! Ignoring his own appetite he offered it to Us.’ Later, when Squire Mi's beauty had faded and [the Duke's] love had slackened, [something he did] offended the Duke and the Duke said, ‘He's the one who drove my carriage without permission and fed me a half-eaten peach.’ We may observe here that Squire Mi's behaviour did not vary from the past. The reason he initially attracted praise and subsequently caused offence was simply a matter of inconstancy in love and disdain. Know, therefore, if you attract the love of your lord your ingenuity will meet with agreement, and you will become even closer to him; if you attract the disdain of your lord your ingenuity will easily offend him, and you will become increasingly distant. Knowing this, knights who would instruct and advise a ruler must not fail to observe what the ruler loves and disdains before attempting to persuade him.

1.4 Extracts from Zuo's Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals (Zuo zhuan), third century BCE

Zuo's Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals is an expansion of the entire Annals, China's first work of narrative history (traditionally attributed to Confucius), and covers the period 722–481 BCE. The Annals, with its chronological account of court events, set the pattern for China's earliest historiography. Zuo's Commentary is attributed to Zuo Qiuming (fl. third century BCE),⁴ and provides additional background and notes to almost all of the entries in the Annals. Many of Zuo's entries are themselves in need of further background and in the main we have followed the annotations provided by the modern philologist, Yang Bojun (1909–92).

The first extract from Zuo's Commentary tells of the close relationship the Marquis of Shen enjoyed with his ruler, King Wen. It raises a theme that is often revisited in subsequent eras, the influence attractive men could have on sovereigns or their officials. It is not clear why later the Marquis had to be killed to impress the ruler of Qi.

The second extract is thought to show that Confucius and others of his time were unconcerned by male same-sex attraction. A young man should normally have been given lesser burial rites compared to the full burial rites accorded to an adult, but Confucius advocated full burial rites for the lover of Gong Wei, a Lu prince, when they died in a battle between the states of Lu and Qi in 484 BCE.

Xi Gong, Seventh Year (653 BCE), Summer, ‘Zheng kills the Marquis of Shen to impress Qi’

To begin, the Marquis of Shen was begotten by [Lady Jiang of] Shen. He attracted the favour of King Wen of Chu. When King Wen was about to die he handed him a ceremonial disc of jade and commanded him to go, saying ‘Only I know you. You have pursued profit without let, you have continually requested or begged things from me, and I have never reproached you. My successor will seek the return of [the fruits of] all those excesses, with absolutely no clemency. As soon as I die you must go without delay. It is best if you do not go to one of the lesser states, which will be unable to protect you.’ With the conclusion of the funeral he immediately fled to the state of Zheng. There he again attracted the favour of Duke Li. When Zi Wen heard of the death of the Marquis of Shen, he said ‘The ancients had a saying, “There is no one who knows a subject better than his lord.” This is unimpeachable.’

Ai Gong, Eleventh Year (484 BCE), ‘Confucius comments on the burial of Wang Qi’

Gong Wei and his beloved page (bitong 嬖僮) Wang Qi rode together. Both lost their lives, both corpses were laid out in preparation for burial. Confucius said, ‘If someone can take up arms in defence of his country, then the lesser burial rites should not be used.’

1.5 Extracts from Strategies of the Warring States (Zhanguo ce), first century BCE

The Strategies of the Warring States was compiled by the Han dynasty scholar-official, librarian and bibliophile Liu Xiang (79–8 BCE) from earlier sources, and purports to record political and military ‘persuasions’ from the end of the Spring and Autumn period to the unification of China under Qin Shihuang. It is no longer considered a work of history by most scholars, but rather a collection of examples of rhetoric, reflecting more the literary values of the period than a concern for historical accuracy. It does, however, reflect the fact that China was then still composed of many small states, and suffered from continual inter-and intrastate rivalries.

As well as revealing a belief that beauty was a dangerous and divisive influence at court, the first extract allows an equality of male and female beauty. We might also conclude that older men were not considered beautiful. Xun Xi's attribution of these attitudes suggests that they occur as early as the Zhou dynasty.

The second entry is one of the most iconic in China's homoerotic tradition, later giving rise to the expression ‘Passion of Longyang’ (longyang pi 龍陽癖) as a synonym for male same-sex attraction, and it plays on the universal human theme of ‘plenty of fish in the ocean’. As a favourite of the King of Wei (魏王), the Lord of Longyang received a small fief at Longyang and a feudal title. We know nothing more of his background, which may mean that he was not originally from an elite family. Like many of the narratives in the Strategies of the Warring States, this passage is highly contrived and cannot be used to draw any conclusions about attitudes in the Warring States period without being considered alongside further contemporary evidence. At the same time, it would seem that same-sex attraction was a recognized and unthreatening feature of court life when the book was compiled.

Qin ce 1, ‘Tian Shenzhi seeks to persuade King Hui of Qin on behalf of Chen Zhen’

When, on behalf of Chen Zhen, Tian Shenzhi sought to persuade King Hui of Qin, he addressed him saying, ‘I fear Your Majesty may end up like the Duke of Guo. Once Duke Xian of Jin planned to invade the state of Guo, but was worried about Zhou Zhiqiao being there. Xun Xi said, “In the Book of Zhou it says good-looking women imperil royal advisors.” So he sent a female entertainer to disrupt their government. Zhou Zhiqiao made petitions but they went unheeded, and so he went elsewhere. Jin then proceeded to invade Guo and overthrew it. Duke Xian planned to invade Yu, but was worried about Gong Zhiqi being there. Xun Xi said, “In the Book of Zhou it says good-looking men imperil those of high nobility.” So he sent a beautiful man instructed to damage Gong Zhiqi. Gong Zhiqi made petitions but they went unheeded, and so he left. Jin then proceeded to invade Yu and annexed it ….’

Wei ce 4, ‘The King of Wei and the Lord of Longyang take a boat together and go angling’

The King of Wei and the Lord of Longyang took a boat together and went angling. After catching more than ten fish the Lord of Longyang broke down in tears. The King asked, ‘Is something troubling you? If so, why not let Us know?’ He replied, ‘How could Your servant dare be troubled?’ The King said, ‘If that is so, what are you crying over?’ He replied, ‘Your servant is crying over these fish Your Majesty has landed.’ The king asked, ‘What do you mean?’ Longyang replied, ‘When I first landed a fish I was overjoyed. Then, after catching even larger fish, I found I would gladly throw all the earlier fish back. Despite Your servant's ugly appearance I have the honour of preparing your bed. Your servant has been made a Lord; when I enter a hall others must leave, and when I walk along the road others must make way. Within the four seas there are many who are known for their beauty, and as soon as they learn that I have been honoured with Your Majesty's favour they will lift up their gowns and race to throw themselves down at Your feet. Your servant is just like the first fish I landed, and one day I will surely be discarded. How could I prevent myself from weeping?’ The King of Wei responded, ‘How mistaken! If that was what was on your mind, why did you not let Us know?’ And so a proclamation was delivered throughout the whole kingdom which read, ‘Those recommending anyone known for their beauty to the ki...

Table of contents

• Front Cover
• Homoeroticism in Imperial China
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Contents
• Figures
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• Part 1 Histories and Philosophers
• Part 2 Poetry
• Part 3 Drama
• Part 4 Fiction
• Part 5 Miscellanies
• Notes
• Principal source references
• Bibliography
• Index