Psycho-Analysis (RLE: Freud)

A Brief Account of the Freudian Theory

Barbara Low

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2013
• ISBN:
  9781317975854
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psychologie
• Subtopic: Psychoanalyse

Originally published in 1920, this book was intended as a brief outline of psychoanalysis for those interested in the subject, but without the time to study the work of Freud and his followers first hand.

AN OUTLINE OF PSYCHO-ANALYSIS

CHAPTER I

THE SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF PSYCHO-ANALYSIS

Psycho-Analysis a Science—Its Subject-Matter—Its Nature and Method—Its ultimate Goal.

“IT is the fate of all useful discoveries and improvements to meet with bigoted or interested opposition from those who would willingly remain in the beaten path of habit, rather than acknowledge any change to be profitable.”

It is fortunate indeed that the above words cannot be applied in completeness to the new knowledge brought before the world of to-day by Professor Freud, but there is enough appropriateness in them to remind us that Psycho-Analysis has been, and probably for a long period still may be, face to face with a bitter struggle before men's minds are sufficiently understanding to render them willing to investigate it without prejudice. The reason for this is not far to seek. Freud himself has told us that his researches led him to one overwhelming certainty, namely, that the last thing man desires to know and understand is himself, and the words of Samuel Butler [God the Known and God the Unknown, p. 9], serve to show us a part of the secret. “Mankind has ever been ready to discuss matters in the inverse ratio of their importance, so that the more closely a question is felt to touch the heart of all of us, the more incumbent it is considered upon prudent people to profess that it does not exist, to frown it down, to tell it to hold its tongue, to maintain that it has long been finally settled so that there is now no question concerning it.”

But this impulse to turn away from self-knowledge can, and in the interests of the individual's and society's happiness must, be overcome; for the help he has given towards such overcoming, a great debt of gratitude is owed to Freud. His work may be roughly described as the provision of new keys by which we can now unlock doors in the human personality hitherto impassable, through which doors we may pass into areas formerly un-guessed at. By the use of the instruments he has forged, we shall in the future be able not only to prevent, to a very large extent, the creation of the neurotic and mentally diseased, but also to set the feet of the new generations on a more desirable path, leading to a destiny more splendid and satisfying than we yet dream of.

The task of Freud has been a hard and laborious one, fraught with difficulty and faced with every variety of opposition. There is neither space nor opportunity here to speak of the history of the Psycho-Analytic movement, a history of twenty years' work and struggle. Those interested can read for themselves Freud's own detailed account given in the English translation entitled The History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement.¹

The results cannot yet be estimated: it is sufficient here to note that investigation and treatment on his lines is proceeding now in Europe, America, England, and his ideas have even begun to force their way into the strongholds of orthodox Psychology, Anthropology and Medicine. Already partial application of the Freudian Psychology has been made in the treatment of “shell-shock” and general “war-shock” patients, under the aegis of the War Office itself. It would seem as though this new psychological knowledge and method will ultimately have to be reckoned along with the great epoch-making discoveries of the past — for instance, Newton's Theory of Gravitation, or the Darwinian theory, and may go further than these in the extent of its application. No doubt there will be extensions and modifications of the original theory in times to come, indeed Freud himself has already revised and modified some of his own theory. One might pause here to point out how big a testimony this last fact is to his mental power and sincerity; only the great minds are capable of adaptation and realization of fresh points of view, alongside with intense concentration and research on a scientific basis. A few lines, originally applied to another great creative mind, are appropriate enough to Freud:

He looked on naked Nature unashamed

And saw the Sphinx, now bestial, now divine,

In change and rechange; he nor praised nor blamed,

But drew her as he saw with fearless line.

Psychoanalysis a Science.

I referred above to Freud's discoveries in comparison with some of the great scientific discoveries of the past, and the comparison certainly holds good in the respect that Psycho-Analysis belongs to the realm of Science, not to that of Philosophy, Metaphysics or Ethics. It is important to emphasize this fact, because critics, opponents and even supporters have been disposed to import into it implications and inferences which do not belong to Freud's own work. It may be allowable to argue that a Metaphysic is inherent in every scientific theory, but at least we are bound to accept Freud's own definition of his own work, namely, that his approach is scientific, that he has worked along scientific lines, and has tested all his conclusions by scientific methods, putting aside other considerations which may or may not be germane to the subject.

Since Freud began his work other explorers and investigators have come into the field and have brought new points of view, adding Philosophical and Ethical considerations; their conclusions may prove to be valid and valuable—only time can show—but this remains the special characteristic of Freud's view-point and method of investigation—it is established on an Empirical Scientific basis. He has looked at the manifestations of Mind, having first obtained an entry into realms hitherto unentered, and has followed out step by step the conclusions, using the most laborious and exhaustive processes to verify them.

There will always be many methods of arriving at the same—or more or less similar —goal; to some, Unconscious Mind and its workings has been revealed through the religious impulse and its influences; for others, intuitive impulses (the inspiration of Art in all its forms) do the same work; for others, the temperamental states of Mysticism bring illumination. We owe it to Freud that he has provided us with a systematic method which we can learn to understand, practise and test by accepted scientific laws, thus making available to large numbers the experiences which only the comparatively few could enter into through the channels instanced above; and even then experiences inexplicable and non-transmissible to others. But just because Psycho-Analysis is so strictly a science, employing only scientific methods (and a punctiliousness not always observable in the scientist), opposition has been raised. No preconceived theories, traditional or conventional standards, ethical considerations, or taboos, are allowed to influence the truth of the conclusions based upon phenomena observed and tested with exhaustive patience and judgment; that, at least, is Freud's ideal: in other words, a genuinely scientific ideal, but one difficult for most of us to tolerate. Schopenhauer has pointed out how the Philosophers and Scientists themselves are too often the worst sinners against sincerity; their fault is not that they are unable to see reality, but that they are unwilling, if that reality conflicts with their own beloved prejudices and desires. Therein, he says, they cease to be Scientists and Philosophers. Here are his own words:

“Almost all the errors and unutterable follies of which doctrines and philosophies are so full, seem to spring from a lack of probity. The truth was not found, not because it was unsought, but because the intention always was to find out again some preconceived opinion, or at least not to wound some favourite idea”.

“It is the courage of making a clean breast of it in face of every question that makes the Philosopher.”

It takes time, and a great readjustment of ideas, before we can be grateful to those who pursue the truth with unrelenting single-mindedness, presenting her to us in her undisguised form. In addition, it must be realized that Psycho-Analysis has presented us with new material and a new sphere of operations. Before the work of Freud, truly “a voyager in uncharted seas,” Psychology had scarcely any knowledge, even indirect, of the Unconscious Mind, and may be said to have taken no cognizance of it. If it be true—and none can doubt it—that “mankind has never a good ear for new music” (to quote Nietzsche's words), then it is understandable that only slowly and reluctantly can the new knowledge be appreciated, which probably is all to the good; time is needed for testing to the utmost extent the new theory, and for as wide an application as possible.

Not only has Freud revealed new material and new spheres of operation, the characteristic of all great scientific discovery; in addition he has made use of a new Method and Technique, employed by none before him, a weapon of his own forging without rules or traditions for its usage. Hence the great difficulty, in the beginning, of comprehending and following up his work. But now we begin to see that this new method has opened up boundless possibilities of research in the human mind, somewhat comparable to the possibilities revealed to the world by the Darwinian Theory, which one may say has become a part of the thinking-technique of man.

The Subject-Matter of Psycho-Analysis.

Any attempt to sum up the subject-matter of Freud's discovery must inevitably give a crude and very partially true statement, for it is impossible that so large a theme as a great scientific theory should be concentrated into a few phrases. This defect is, and inevitably must be, apparent in any presentation such as can be afforded in an outline of the present nature and scope: to counteract it, the reader who is genuinely interested in the subject must go to the fountain-head, to Freud's own work (a good deal of which is now translated into English from the original German) and to the work of his unequivocal followers.¹ For the present purpose, the subject-matter may be indicated as an Investigation of the Content and Working of the Unconscious Mind and of the Relation between the Unconscious and Consciousness.

Before going further it is essential to realize Freud's use of the term “Unconscious Mind.” To begin with its opposite. He signifies by “Consciousness” all the mental processes of which a person is aware, distinctly or vaguely at any given time, and in addition he employs the term “pre-conscious” for all that mind-stuff of which a person is not at the given moment aware, but which is capable of being (perhaps with certain effort) recalled.

But all that realm of mind which is unknown and is incapable of being spontaneously recalled by the subject, which is only made manifest (and only then in disguised form) in special states such as Dreams, Trances, Fantasies, Mania, etc., and can only be evoked by special methods, he terms the Unconscious.

This Unconscious, which term comprises both Memories and Processes, is in conflict with the tendencies and attitudes of the Conscious Mind (a further discussion of which will be carried out in a subsequent chapter), and it is this conflict with its bearings which is disclosed to us by the work of Psycho-Analysis. The exploration of the content of the Unconscious Mind and its processes led Freud to the formulation of his Theory of the Unconscious; the necessity for finding a Method whereby to explore, led to the creation of the Psycho-Analytic Technique, the latter, in fact, coming first and resulting in the subsequent theory. For Freud has not “evolved” any preconceived theory of the Unconscious. As already pointed out, it was through his attempts to study and cure abnormal and pathological mental states that he constructed his technique, and through the continued use of that technique came upon his great discoveries in the realm of the Unconscious.

The next step was to investigate the relationship between the Unconscious and Consciousness, which is all-important as far as the Therapeutic aspect of Freud's work goes —that aspect which must pre-eminently concern the practising doctor, the educationist, the social reformer, and the ordinary intelligent “layman.”

If we pause for a moment to consider how comparatively small a fragment of mind is made manifest in the ordinary processes of life (though glimpses of a wider horizon may be obtained in the Art manifestations of great minds), we may realize what a new field for thought investigation has been thrown open merely by the established knowledge that there is Unconscious Mind—Mind continuously working without our conscious awareness and exercising influence of the profoundest kind upon our conscious selves. We have dimly sensed it here and there in vague manner; we talk of the artist's “inspiration” an unknown force coming from some unknown area of mind, working in non-understandable ways; we talk of the mysterious “Mob-impulses,” of the “Herd-instinct,” and so forth. Now for the first time we can follow up and trace out the workings of these forces. True, they may still remain to a large degree mysterious, as all life in its manifestations is, but our knowledge and power gain inestimably if we are enabled to guide, modify, and adapt those manifestations. In mediaeval days leprosy was regarded as a miraculous gift from God before which men bowed their heads and folded their hands, with the result that thousands perished most horribly from this disease; to-day we may still regard its incidence as an unexplainable mystery, but we have enough knowledge to cope with it, to segregate the diseased, to limit its spread, to alleviate its ravages. So with the new knowledge that the realization of the Unconscious has wrought; we may never account for Mind and its processes, but we can now begin to explain and interpret a great deal hitherto wrapped in darkness, hence productive of disease and misery. More important still, even, we now can discover the origins of much in our conscious mental life, by which knowledge we may hope to shape the future more satisfactorily, adapting environment to the human being on more rational lines, and helping to transform mere blind following, or equally blind repudiation, of instinct into enlightened understanding. Enabled by the Psycho-Analytic discoveries to trace back to primitive forms and origins the complexities of the adult psyche, we begin to see far more clearly the value and validity (and the reverse) of our mind-stuff; we gain the mastery over it which knowledge brings; we can analyse and interpret it more correctly, and, above all, we learn to give to the Unconscious its share —a most unexpectedly large one—of significance and dynamic force. Consciousness ceases to usurp the whole stage of mental life: it learns to step aside to give place to the greater though less-seen actor in the Psychic Drama.

Nature and Method.

As has been already noted, the term “Psycho-Analysis” comprises both the Theory of Unconscious Mind (with its methods of working) and a Technique whereby that Unconscious Mind may be explored and interpreted.

The work of the Analyst is to note and follow up with the utmost care and exactness all the spontaneous manifestations and reactions of the Patient, physical and mental.

He must observe everything that is produced in talk; all the manifestations of which the Patient himself may be quite unaware (such as trifling physical habits, sudden bodily and facial movements, sighs, smiles, hesitation, and so forth); all his emotional reactions, all the material of night-dreams, day-dreams, fantasies. All these form the stuff out of which, by degrees, the Patient (under the guidance of the Analyst) makes a synthesis; thereby revealing to himself a “map” of his own psyche, and the springs of action and feeling which hitherto have lain, unknown and unknowable, in the Unconscious, manifest (if at all) to Consciousness, only in disguised and distorted aspect. One essential feature of the investigation is that it must be comprehensive. The ever-present selection and criticism of the conscious “intellectual” mind, absolutely necessary in certain spheres though it be, must be laid aside to allow free play to the spontaneous flow of all that emerges into the field of Consciousness. This is no easy task, above all for the highly educated sophisticated product of modern civilization. The impulse to select, to co-ordinate, to ignore irrelevancies, to rationalize, has become almost instinctive to most of us, and the first (sometimes the last) difficulty to be overcome often lies in this tendency.

Only by patient practice, by a strong desire to admit and reveal all the mental material, and a renunciation of the merely intellectual trends, can the spontaneous manifestations be obtained. Here the Analyst can give help and guidance; his function is to watch for the indications of any check on the free flow of spontaneous manifestations, to show the Patient when and how this is...