Exploring the Social Impacts of Events

Greg Richards, Marisa de Brito, Linda Wilks, Greg Richards, Marisa de Brito, Linda Wilks

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2013
• ISBN:
  9781136264498
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Commerce
• Subtopic: Industrie des services

Social impacts are increasingly used as one of the main justifications for staging and funding events, and yet there is very little empirical evidence on the extent to which these impacts are realised by different kinds of events or in different settings.

This timely volume fills this gap by being the first to explore the different social aspects of events, looking in particular at the role of events in developing social capital, social cohesion and participation in local communities. Based on cutting edge empirical research, it evaluatesthe contribution of both cultural and sports events to social capital, social cohesion, community spirit and local pride in range of different types of events and settings, with case studies drawn from Europe, Australia and South Africa. It therefore furthers knowledge about the social benefits and impacts of events and significantly contributes to the development of Events as a discipline.

Written by leading academics in this area, this volume is essential reading for all those interested in Events Management and Studies.

1 Introduction

Linda Wilks

The need to understand the social dimensions of events

Events operate on a range of scales, from the small, volunteer-run community event for 100 or so people, to the professionally organized, politically driven mega-event which takes years to plan and attracts millions of attendees. Events take place across the world, in rural and urban locations, within developed and developing nations, as well as in the virtual domain. Events encompass a wide variety of themes and formats, from music festivals to sporting competitions and trade exhibitions. Despite their many differences, however, linking all of these events is the presence of people who interact with each other.

Social interaction is thus a key feature of events, with temporary communities, of varying degrees of cohesion, being necessarily formed for the duration of the event. These event communities may overlap into the world beyond the event, with the event providing a nucleus for existing social relationships to be intensified, or a starting point for the initiation of new social connections which persist beyond the event. It should also be remembered that the concentration of emotion at an event may result in the destruction of social relationships. Also on a negative note, attention should be paid to the effect on social interaction of the intended or unintended exclusion of certain sets of people from certain events.

Events can therefore be said to have social impacts, in that outcomes of a social or inter-relational nature may be identified. Social impacts could include the development of social networks, community pride, feelings of inclusion or exclusion, social integration, increased mutual understanding, changes in perceptions of attitudes, and the development or preservation of traditions. Social impacts can be at an individual, family, group, or community level. Social impact is sometimes examined as one of a range of impacts, but until recently tended to be seen as of lesser importance than, say, economic impact or environmental impact.

Although it is important to consider the end effect or impact of an event on people and communities, there is also a need to delve below the surface of these social impacts and examine the many processes at work in the determination of these impacts. There is a need to look at social impact in its widest possible sense, exploring impact at individual, as well as group and community level. The role of antecedents should also be taken into account, so that ways in which pre-conditions may affect social impact are considered. There is also a need to compare and contrast the social processes in evidence across the different event sectors, drawing lessons from one sector and using these to contribute to understanding another sector. Thus, it is not enough to look only at the ‘end result’, but it is also necessary to consider social impact by looking at the whole lifecycle of an event as well, including the context within which it takes place.

Context provides many reasons for the need to focus now on the social impact of events. Attending events has been a key leisure activity from early times. However, recent increases in the leisure time people have available, due to reductions in working hours, increased unemployment and increasing numbers of older, retired people, as well as increased disposable income for some, mean that attendance at events has grown. Events are seen as a major leisure activity and economic sector, and their increasing prevalence has led to their increased scrutiny.

The event management industry is becoming increasingly professionalized and with that increased professionalism comes an understanding that research can contribute to events’ success. Gaining an understanding of the social perspective of events is starting to be recognized as being of vital importance. This collection of research papers thus presents a body of knowledge that will help to stimulate further discussion amongst events researchers, as well as inspiring event managers to consider the social dimension of their events.

The need for event managers to understand the social dimension is also related to context and reflects an increasing regard for an instrumentalized approach to culture and sport, illustrated by the emphasis on impacts and legacy for events such as the European Capital of Culture and the Olympic Games. For public-sector events in particular, the political context in which these events operate is a key consideration. Politicians call on event managers to help them to justify the use of public money for events. Although wider economic impacts are often cited as justification, being able to demonstrate (positive) social impact is also increasingly recognized as a valid and desirable form of rationalization. The voluntary sector, by its very nature, needs to be able to understand and explain the social impact of organizing an event. Indeed, the event may have a social purpose in itself: bringing together potential donors, perhaps, or providing a conspicuous means of highlighting the need for charitable funding for an organization. Even the commercial sector will benefit from understanding the social dimension of events, perhaps helping in the understanding of issues such as how to market events more effectively by emphasizing the social benefits to attendees, as well as a means of understanding how to control crowds and increase event spending.

Investigating the social dimensions of events

For all the reasons highlighted above, academic interest in the study of the social impact of events is growing, albeit so far quite patchy. The few academic articles that refer specifically to the social impact of events appear in a variety of subject areas within the academic press, including in tourism journals (Hall and Hodges 1996), sports management journals (Balduck et al. 2011), and geography journals (De Bres and Davis 2001). The newly emerging event management academic press, including journals such as Event Management and the Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, is starting to provide a dedicated home for events-focused research with a social dimension (Delamere et al. 2001; Wilks 2011). This book helps to build the event studies canon by including chapters that are rooted in the events discipline, rather than having a home within one of its sister disciplines. This emphasis is likely to occur more often as the events research literature expands and gains stature. This book is, however, unique within this developing canon, in its sole focus on understanding the social dimension of events. It is hoped that it will be an inspiration for future research as the field continues to develop.

When investigating the social impacts of events, literature that studies related areas of activity may also be drawn on for inspiration. Studies on the social impact of the arts (Belfiore and Bennett 2007), of sport (Kay and Bradbury 2009) and of tourism (Markwell and Waitt 2009) may all provide useful lessons.

Attempts have been made to develop quantitative measurement scales (Fredline et al. 2003), but objectively measuring social impact has been found to be extremely difficult. Qualitative investigations of social impact, which focus on collecting data on individual perceptions of social impact, have been attempted, and the use of secondary data has also been suggested as useful (Department for Culture Media and Sport 2011).

Interest from event organizers and arts practitioners has led to the commissioning of social impact studies, often carried out on a consultancy basis, such as the much criticized but ground-breaking early studies by Matarasso (1996, 1997). More recently, studies of specific festivals or groups of festivals have been commissioned by practitioners hoping to find evidence of positive social impact (Maughan and Bianchini 2004; The Association of Festival Organisers 2004; BOP Consulting 2011).

There is, therefore, a useful set of investigations and explorations of social impact in relation to events which provides a starting point on which to build. There is a general lack of empirical studies from which to draw evidence, however. There is also a tendency for many of the existing social impact studies, particularly those that were commissioned by event organizers, to focus on the positive, thus avoiding highlighting negative, or a lack of, social impacts, as well as the desired positive outcomes.

Broadening the scope beyond merely considering social impact, to include other social aspects of events, further literature emerges. Arcodia and Whitford (2007), for example, explore the role of social capital in relation to festival attendance; Gibson (2007) looks at the role of festivals in the diffusion of musical genres with specialist audiences, concluding that this is contributing to social and cultural change; Clarke and Jepson (2011) look at power and hegemony within a community festival; and Crespi-Vallbona and Richards (2007) focus on the importance of cultural events in underpinning identity. It is evident, therefore, that consideration of the social dimensions of events is a fertile topic for consideration that only recently has begun to be cultivated.

Theoretical groundings

Reflecting its place at the crossroads of several disciplines, study of the social dimensions of events has a rich range of theory on which to draw for frameworks. One of the most popular theories is that of social capital. Although a contested theory with several strands, and with robust critique from Fine (2001, 2010), in particular, social capital can be used to frame studies on inclusion, community, trust, social networks and volunteering in events. It can be used to examine the social dimensions of events at the individual level (Bourdieu 2002) or community level (Putnam 2000), and may include the chance to incorporate economic aspects of social networks (Coleman 1988).

Related to social capital, there is the potential to use theory that focuses on social networks and the network society (Castells 1996). Castells’s focus on the flows of information, capital and cultural information shows promise for its inclusion of the role of media in social impact.

Also related to social capital is the theory of cultural capital (Bourdieu 1984,2002), which can be used to highlight the role of cultural taste in the social workings of events. Events-related issues around inclusion and exclusion, social cohesion and social class may find inspiration and explanation through an examination of the theory of cultural capital.

Long-established sociological theory relating to community and social cohesion has potential application when examining the social impacts of events. Tönnies’s (1957) concepts of the united community denoted by Gemeinschaft and the contrasting emphasis on separated individuals within a community of Gesellschaft may provide inspiration. Similarly, Durkheim’s (1964) focus on the loss of community has ramifications for examining social impact. More recent laments on the loss of social interchange between citizens by Sennett (1986, 2012) also provide useful starting points for the examination of social impact.

Again drawing on sociology, theories around race and ethnicity could prove useful when examining social impacts in relation to events. Hall’s (1992) ‘new ethnicities’, which explores the dual ethnic identities of diasporic populations, may be used as a basis for examining event populations. Identity theories, along with investigations of tribes and neo-tribes, could also be used to explore the role of events in people’s lives and their impact on their sense of identity (Maffesoli 1996, 1988; Bennett 1999).

Place theory also has much to offer social impacts of event studies. Massey’s (2005) exploration of the role of space and place could be useful when examining settings for social encounters. Castells’s (1996) mention of territorial identity is also relevant. Also the linking of social impact to the unique and special nature of events such as festivals and ritual ceremonies could be underpinned by theories of rites of passage and the time-out-of-time concept of liminality (Turner 1969; Urry 1990).

Theories around power could help when examining the role of social class and politics in relation to the social dimensions of events (De Tocqueville 1966; Foucault 1980), a facet which will reward development, particularly when taking a critical stance on events. With the potential to be useful when exploring dimensions of power, stakeholder analysis can be used to highlight the roles of the social actors taking part in an event (Mitchell et al. 1997; Getz et al. 2007). Also showing links to concepts of power, as well as to social capital, social exchange theory (Hormans 1958) can provide a means of explaining perceived social costs and benefits relating to events.

It is evident, therefore, that events researchers have myriad theories on which they can draw when attempting to investigate and explain the social dimensions of events. Many of the theories mentioned above are used by the chapters’ authors to frame their studies.

The aim of this book

As explained above, there is a general lack of res...