Studies in Biblical and Semitic Symbolism

Maurice H. Farbridge

• Publisher: Taylor & Francis
• Year: 2013
• eBook ISBN: 9781136373565
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Ethnic Studies
• Index: Social Sciences

This is Volume II in series of six on the Ancient Near East. Originally published in 1923, adding to an important a branch of Biblical and Semitic Studies this study looks biblical and Semitic symbolism.

Chapter I

The Development of Biblical and Semitic Symbolism

Symbolism originated in the efforts of intuitively intelligent human beings to convey ideas and information by the use of certain signs. In the simpler stages of society mankind can be taught general truths only by symbols and parables. Whereas the idiomatic phraseology which characterizes a restricted form of expression is wholly inadequate or else misleading and obscure when utilized in the domain of spiritual analyses, the symbol often illumines the understanding beyond the bounds of human intellection. In religion, as in art and literature, symbolism corresponds with a necessity of the human mind which has never been able to content itself with pure abstractions.

The tendency to give a substantial visible form to an abstract idea is so deeply rooted in humanity that it must be looked upon as responding to a human necessity. It is only very rarely that purely intellectual conceptions can satisfy us—they must be given some external palpable and visible form to exert their greater influence. Creeds are inadequate to express the emotional side of religions, and, in consequence, creeds never do fulfil the desire for full expression of the sentiment of wonder worship in man. In the words of Dean Inge : “The truth is that the need of symbols to express or represent our highest emotions is inwoven with human nature, and indifference to them is not, as many have supposed, a sign of enlightenment or spirituality. It is in fact an unhealthy symptom. We do not credit a man with a warm heart who does not care to show his love in word or act, nor should we commend the common sense of a soldier who saw in his regimental colours only a rag at the end of a pole.”¹ As Victor Hugo says in L’Homme qui rit: “Il est presque impossible d’exprimer dans leur limites exactes les évolutions abstruses qui se font dans le cerveau. L’inconvénient des mots, c’est d’avoir plus de contour que les idées. Toutes les idées se mêlent par les bords; les mots, non. Un certain côté diffus de l’âme leur échappe toujours. L’expression a des frontières la pensée n’en a pas.” This explains why we find almost all early religions becoming mythic, and explaining their mysteries by allegories or national incidents. Lord Bacon has more than once declared that as hieroglyphics preceded letters, so parables are older than arguments.

According to Porphyry “The ancients were willing to conceal God and divine virtue by sensible figures, and by those things which are visible yet signifying invisible things ”.² For instance, the world, sun, hope, eternity, were symbolized by round things; whilst the heavens were represented by a circle, a segment of which indicated the moon. This fact was recognized by humanity in the incipiency of its spiritual teachings, and we can thus understand why even at present our thoughts about the highest and deepest subjects deteriorate in our attempts to express them with precision, and why great ideas as well as deep feelings are very often more convincingly conveyed to many people in music than in words.

Similarly a pictorial representation of an idea or thought often produces a much better effect than a description of it in words. And as art has always preceded language, pictorial art has always produced a much more lasting impression on the memory than written or spoken words, and it was by its symbolical ornamentation and architecture that spiritual and religious truths were taught and explained. Early Christian art was full of symbols whose uses and meanings were discussed in various treatises. Didron, in his work on Christian Iconography, writes: “For those men of the Middle Ages, for those Christians of lively susceptibility, but who yet knew not how to read, the clergy provided rondes-bosses, bas-reliefs, and pictures where science on the one hand and doctrine on the other were personified. A sculptured arch in the porch of a church, or an historical glass painting in the nave presented the ignorant with a lesson, the believer with a sermon—a lesson and a sermon which reached the heart through the eyes instead of entering at the ears. The impression, besides, was infinitely deeper, for it is acknowledged that a picture sways the soul far more powerfully than any discourse or description in words.”

We thus find that not only in the ancient East but even in mediaeval England symbolism permeated the whole life of the people, and entered into the observances of chivalry, the very armour of the valiant knight being full of symbolical meanings which it was his duty to know. The abbot had his rebus worked into the capitals or bosses of his abbey, and even the merchant placed his sign or the emblem of his trade outside his warehouse.

Various definitions have been given of the word “symbol”. It has been defined by some scholars as “a representation which does not aim at being a reproduction”, by others as “a form of representing a thought or fact which is difficult to express by words alone”, by others again as “an image couched in the language of human experience which is not to be understood literally by the trained intelligence, but only as the best available expression of transcendent spiritual realities”. But whatever definition may be given of the term, it is of the utmost importance to notice that while its original functions may have been used merely to represent an image, an idea, or an emotion, its importance has often grown and developed so considerably that the symbol has ended by replacing the very object or idea it was intended to represent, thus acquiring much greater importance than that which was originally assigned to it.³

In later times the great classical example of “symbolic statements” is to be found in Plato’s stories which, although appearing as simple narratives, can easily be understood to be valuable only because they are the vehicles of certain thoughts and ideas. The Alexandrian Jews like Philo made use of this form of symbolism as one of their methods in their interpretation of the Old Testament; whilst in later times Jewish philosophers like Spinoza looked upon this method as a bridge between what they thought to be intellectually true and spiritually edifying for humanity.

But as man found that words are altogether inefficient to give expression to the infinite contents of the human soul, and as in primitive society the art of writing as giving lasting and permanent expression to one’s ideas and thoughts had not yet developed, there arose the necessity for symbolical actions as a means of accompanying and supplementing human speech. One can gather the necessity for symbolical actions from our present-day forms of intercourse amongst men. Even nowadays speech is often accompanied by gesture; and various parts of the body, the hands or the head in particular, are used to illustrate or emphasize one’s thoughts or meaning. How much more must these gestures have been necessary in early times when human speech had not yet reached the stage of development it has attained to-day! Scholars are agreed that from the very earliest times “the audible word has been accompanied by the visible gesture”. In fact, in many cases symbolical actions really preceded human speech, for the thoughts which stir man’s mind to adopt such actions are already there and express themselves forcibly before he possesses sufficient verbal power to make them clear to his neighbour; so that the symbol shows clearly all that he does and is before he is able to express his thoughts in words. Again the symbolical action served another purpose. At a period when the art of writing had not yet developed the symbol took its place and was used as a means of creating an indelible impression on the mind of man.

We can thus see how there arose in the intercourse of mankind the necessity for symbolical actions of every kind. If two men had made a covenant binding each other by mere words to preserve it, the covenant would have been altogether valueless. Words rustle past like the wind and soon pass out of memory. It was absolutely necessary, therefore, that the verbal agreement should be accompanied by a symbol which would produce a profound and lasting impression on the mind, and would indicate dearly to both parties the punishment they would receive in case they violated it. Thus there arose amongst all peoples various ceremonies which formed part of the taking of an oath or the making of a covenant.

For example, amongst the Hebrews the one who took an oath lifted up his right hand towards heaven and thus pointed to the throne of the deity who was invoked as a witness to the truth and as the avenger of falsehood.

This explains why the phrase “to lift up the hand” was used to denote the taking of an oath. But there were other more elaborate and impressive symbolical ceremonies. Sometimes an animal was killed and divided into two pieces and the parties walked between them to show that they invoked a similar doom of destruction upon themselves if they proved unfaithful to their oath. (Gen. xv, Jer. xxxiv, 18 f.)

Another custom was for the person who took the oath to place his hand under the “thigh” of the adjurer. (Gen. xxiv, 2; xlvii, 29.) This practice arose from the fact that the genital member which is meant by the euphemistic expression “thigh” was regarded as especially sacred being the symbol of perpetuity and union in matrimonial life. As a matter of fact it was actually an object of worship amongst many nations of antiquity. No more impressive ceremony could therefore have been performed in early days than for a man to touch the symbol of creation and the source of that issue who may, at any future date, be called upon to maintain an oath which has been taken, or revenge one which has been broken. Thus we read of Joseph taking an oath by placing his hand upon the organs of generation and so does Eliezer with Abraham. Even at the present day this form of oath is to be found amongst certain Arabian tribes⁴ who actually swear by the “phallus of Allah”.

There are numerous references in Babylonian literature to the ceremony connected with the taking of an oath or the making of an agreement. The judge administered the oath at the shrine of Shamash (the sun-god who was also the great judge of the universe), in Sippar, or before the dragon which was sculptured on the doors of the temple of Marduk at Babylon. In the case of a contract not to alter the stipulated agreement, the oath was followed by the words “whoever shall alter or dispute the words of this tablet”. The punishment for so doing is not stated, but this was because it was considered too terrible to mention. A kind of “magical conjuration” was employed sometimes, but the meaning of this is not yet understood. These very words and ceremonies thus represented clearly to all concerned the potency and efficiency of the oath which had been taken.

Again, on the annulment of a former agreement, the cancelling of a deed, the dissolution of a partnership or the payment of a debt, a ceremony took place, part of which consisted in the breaking of a tablet. The symbolism connected with such a ceremony is obvious.

Let us consider a few further examples. Amongst the ancient Hebrews business transactions took place publicly in the market-place so that the presence of the whole community, or at least ten of the elders, served to confirm them. (Gen. xxiii.) Now, if a mere verbal agreement had been made between the two parties it would have been soon forgotten. As an aid to the memory, therefore, there arose the custom of drawing off the shoes in transferring a possession or domain. (Ruth iv, 7.) The idea was that the person who gave up a possession should show by removing his shoe that he was thus divesting himself of something before the witnesses. This could then be regarded as a public declaration that he was withdrawing from the property and handing it over to another person. In the book of Ruth the delivering of a shoe signified that the next-of-kin transferred to another a sacred obligation.⁵ When the art of writing became much more common in ancient Israel this practice fell out of usage, and, instead, as a means of perpetuating the transaction, two copies of a document, signed by the witnesses, were prepared. One copy was for public use, whilst the other was sealed and only opened officially if any doubt arose as to the genuineness of the former.

Another reason for the importance of these symbolical actions was the firm belief that they were being executed in the presence of the deity who could therefore constantly be invoked as a witness to their permanency. Such a belief existed in Babylonia also, and, therefore, when legal documents—particularly those dealing with the ownership of land—were drawn up there were carried at the head of the stelae the symbols of the chief gods of the pantheon. At times, also, symbols of various gods were sculptured upon a stone monument to show that it was under the protection of the gods whose symbols were represented.

But it was mainly in the domain of religion that these signs and symbols were employed, for in man’s relationship with the great Eternal all human words and expressions, however beautiful and perfect, are altogether inadequate to express his inmost feelings. Religion depends for its in-exhaustible power upon symbols of its life and as soon as these symbols are performed they help to emphasize its existence to both its adherents and opponents.

This leads us on to the numerous symbolical actions which were employed by the Hebrew prophets as means of attracting attention and impressing their teachings upon the minds of observers. When Saul accidentally tore Samuel’s robe, the prophet interpreted it as indicating that Saul’s kingdom would be torn away from him. Ahijah tore his garment into twelve pieces and gave ten to Jeroboam to symbolize the partition of Solomon’s kingdom. Zedekiah, a false prophet, put on horns in order to show that Ahab would push the Syrians with horns of iron. In Zechariah xi we read that the prophet took a staff as an emblem of the two Israelitish kingdoms, and broke it to symbolize the breaking of brotherhood between Israel and Judah. Isaiah walked about naked and barefoot for three years as a sign that the king of Assyria would lead away, captive, the Egyptians and Ethiopians naked and barefoot.

Such symbolical actions are particularly common in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. In order to show to the people that Jerusalem would be destroyed, Jeremiah shattered an earthen vessel before the people. On another occasion he placed bands and bars upon his neck and then sent them to the kings of Edom and Moab and their allies (who were trying to persuade Zedekiah to rebel against the king of Babylon) with the announcement that the yoke of Babylon would be laid upon all those countries. Ezekiel removed all his goods from his house as a sign of the approaching exile. He also shaved his head and destroyed the hairs, with the exception of a few, to illustrate the fate in store for the nation.

Now, in considering the special symbolical actions of the prophetic books we are confronted with very great difficulty, for scholars are divided in their views as to whether these actions were actually performed in their literal sense or were merely conceived as symbolic visions in the minds of the prophets. It seems almost certain that there are a number of such actions which could not have been performed literally, and a brief discussion of some of these from the Books of Jeremiah and Ezekiel may give some indication as to the difficulties in arriving at a definite decision. In Jer. xiii, 1–11, God tells the prophet to go to the Euphrates and hide his linen girdle in a rock. After a while he is told to remove the girdle and then finds it to be marred. The lesson is that just as a girdle from its nature clings to a person, so Israel is closely united to God.

On the one hand, it may seem unlikely that Jeremiah should have undertaken a journey from Jerusalem to Babylon, a distance of about 200 miles, in order to bring out this point to the people. But it is possible that the journey was actually performed. (1) We know that the prophet was absent from Jerusalem during part of Jehoiakim’s reign, and, as we have no account of his whereabouts during this period, it is possible that he had made the journey to Babylon during this time. (2) In Jer. xxxix, 11, we are told that Nebuchadrezzar behaved most friendly towards him on the capture of Jerusalem. This could be explained by the suggestion that king and prophet had met previously and that it was on this occasion of the prophet’s visit to Babylon.

In Ezek. iv, 5, we are told that the prophet lay upon his side for 390 days. How can this be taken literally ? Did any person actually count the number of days ? In iv, 12, we are told that he used human excrement for fuel in baking some barley cakes. Surely it cannot reasonably be suggested that the prophet would have inconvenienced himself by going to such extremes merely in order to bring home to the people some divine message which he could very well have preached in a much more suitable manner. There are some scholars, however, chief of whom is Klostermann, who argue that these symbolical actions were performed.⁶ The dumbness of Ezekiel (iii, 24–7), they suggest, was due to a temporary loss of speech, and they explain similar performances by somewhat similar suggestions. Against this it may be argued that the very fact that the divine command to the prophet to carry out a symbolical action is introduced by the words “Give to the rebellious house a parable and say to them, Thus saith the Lord God, set on the cauldron and pour water into it, etc.” (Ezek. xxiv, 3), suggests that Ezekiel does not carefully distinguish between symbolical actions actually performed and merely spoken parables. Again, in some cases instead of being informed that the symbolical action was actually performed we are given an account rather of its symbolical meaning (Ezek. iv, 16; v, 5; xii, 19). These arguments, as well as the belief that many of the symbolical actions referred to in the book of Ezekiel could not actually have been perfor...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Preface
• Contents
• Chapter I. The Development of Biblical and Semitic Symbolism
• Chapter II. Trees, Plants, and Flowers
• Chapter III. The Animal Kingdom
• Chapter IV. Symbolism of Numbers
• Chapter V. Symbolical Representations of the Babylonian-Assyrian Pantheon
• Chapter VI. Burial and Mourning Customs
• Chapter VII. Miscellaneous Symbolisms
• Index