![]()
1 Introduction
Police education and training in context
P. Stanislas
All around the world police leaders and their organizations face problems with improving aspects of their performance. On occasions these issues can involve relatively minor improvements or adjustments in practice, while in other instances organizational and performance problems can be more widespread and potentially endemic, requiring a number of interventions or strategies to bring about meaningful change and improved outcomes. Another set of factors in understanding the processes linking demands for change in police practice and outcomes are the key actors involved in this process both locally and internationally. This book critically examines the role of police training, education and development and organizational change and the key stakeholders involved. This collection of essays explores practices in police training and education drawn from around the world and the factors which are changing them, and provides a lens for understanding important developments, similarities, and differences in world policing.
While some policing jurisdictions may face relatively straightforward challenges in improving their organizationsā performance, other difficulties faced by police leaders are more complex, as highlighted by the following instance.
In 2008 a beleaguered Jamaican Deputy Commissioner of Police announced his support for training and education to increase the awareness and sensitivity of his officers towards social diversity and human rights (Jamaican Gleaner 2008). The recognition of these previously unrecognized needs came as a result of the Jamaican police becoming central characters in an international controversy about homophobia, driven primarily by Western activists (Stanislas 2013). The increase in popular homophobia, which emerged in Jamaica since the late 1980s, fuelled by the emergence of AIDS (Carr 2003) and more importantly the impact of globalism and rising poverty (Stanislas 2013) is witnessed in the increased intolerance against the Jamaican gay and lesbian population. The Jamaican police has been criticized for the important role it plays in reproducing these attitudes, as illustrated by its treatment of victims of homophobic-based crimes.
The problems experienced by the Jamaican police leadership are compounded by dissatisfaction from wide sections of society about the quality of policing received (Jones 2003), characterized by a history of police violence and human rights abuses which has earned it a poor reputation (Manning 2007; Jamaican Gleaner 2011). Many of these issues have a human resource management component in terms of remedies, which is highlighted by Harriot (2009) and in the various chapters of this book, but more specifically a training and education dimension in terms of philosophies of policing, issues around citizenship, social diversity and inclusion and the use of force inter alia.
The Jamaican example illustrates how local and transnational pressures are paramount in creating the environment contemporary police organizations have to negotiate and the important role those involved in police education and training potentially play in this process. The greater awareness of the experiences of citizens around the world of unsatisfactory police performance is highlighted in the International Victimization Crime Survey (IVCS) and the growth of its use, and similar types of research (Mawby and Walklate 1994; Zvekic 1998). Initially an initiative of the Dutch Justice Ministry, the IVCS, which first gained popularity in North America and Western Europe, is now being embraced around the world to include developing nations and those in transition, as an important means to gauge public experiences of criminal victimization and the criminal justice system (Zvekic 1998; Alvazzi del Frate 2003). Countries as diverse as former communist nations to those in the African southern hemisphere are increasingly subjecting their police organizations to critical scrutiny and demanding higher standards, as Kratcoski and Das (2007: 5) explain:
As societies are getting developed in civilization, freedoms, education and in communication, the expectation from police organizations, which are the organs of state, increases. Especially the society is not only expecting the police to do its basic duties, but also expecting him to carry these out with tolerance [in a] kindly way.
The sentiments of Kratcoski and Das are reinforced by international standards promoted by influential transnational bodies such as the United Nations (see Cheah 1997; Painter and Farrington 1999) which can serve as a resource for those seeking to bring about reform in their countries.
The training and education of police officers is not only important in the context of preparing the police to respond to a variety of contemporary changes, but is significant in terms of the sheer scale and amount of time, personnel and other resources it takes up and the various forms training and education can take. This is particularly pronounced in countries with long histories of political stability, economic prosperity, and with advanced policing systems (Hinton and Newburn 2009; Kratcoski and Das 2007). Mawby (2007), for example, notes that in many countries enhanced training and education in how to respond effectively to victims now constitutes a standard feature of the preparation of police officers. However, even in poor parts of the world where police organizations suffer from lack of material resources, training and education activities can still take up a considerable amount of resources. This is illustrated in Jones and Satchellās (2009) review of the growing training and education infrastructure for police and public safety officials in the English-speaking Caribbean and Latin America, while Munanura (2007) informs us that the Masindi Police Training School in Uganda has a staff of 56, of which 36 are trainers.
The decentralized and devolved character of decision-making around police education and training in many western liberal democratic policing systems, makes it difficult to ascertain how much of the police budget is spent on these activities (Jarvis 1992; Brew 1995). Even though Kratcoski and Das (2007: 13) have noted that in some countries the amount spent on formal training and education by the police is mandated by legislation, calculating the financial and resource costs of training, education, and development activities is further complicated by the fact that many wanting to join the police may privately pursue education or similar development activities independently to prepare themselves or throughout their policing career (Marenin 2007; Cordner and Shain 2011). The notion of making those wanting to join the police responsible for their initial pre-entry education and training, and the financial costs involved, is a model gaining increased attention in England and Wales (Wood and Tong 2010; Patterson 2011) and already established in parts of Canada and the US (Cordner and Shain 2011: 282).
In Hungary the practice of making recruits pay for their initial training if they fail to remain with the police for a stipulated period enables the Hungarian police to recoup its initial outlay (SĆ”ndor, this collection). This practice addresses one dimension of an important debate about police training and education practice in parts of the world (Reaves 2009; Cordner and Shain 2011: 282). The change to a pre-employment model of police education and training in England has been driven by efforts to reduce costs which is one dimension of various discourses calling for major reform of the British police (OāMalley 1997; Loveday 2006).
The issue of managing and evaluating resources involved in achieving desired outcomes is an increasingly important aspect of the work of police managers around the world (OāMalley 1997; McLaughlin 2007). The area of police human resources management is an important focus for these concerns. Veic and Mraovic (2007) highlight the work of the Croatian Policeās Department of Professional Improvement and Specialization. The DPIS is responsible for identifying police education and training needs and how they can be best met. A glimpse into the potential resources implications of training for advanced policing systems can be inferred from the remarks of Kratcoski and Das (2007: 5):
Those in specialized crime control units might receive advanced training in cybercrime, narcotics, juvenile crime, arson investigations, forgery, organized crimes, and vice-related or violent crime. For others, advanced training might be technical, related to advance photography, computer skills, or new types of equipment for traffic control. The topics covered in the advanced training often were expansions of the more general knowledge provided in earlier courses.
Many of the types of training and education mentioned above are also provided in the policing systems of the former communist European nation of Hungary which has a comprehensive provision of education and training for police officers and civilians, working for the police and public security and emergency response services, and examined by SƔndor in Chapter 11. The cost of training and education provision in a relatively small country like Hungary is potentially very expensive and compares favourably with some of the more advanced policing training systems in the world.
Definition of education and training
A crucial issue central to the development of police officers is the type of informational and other inputs provided to help them effectively carry out their various functions. Training is generally defined as formal activities designed to improve human performance in carrying out specific functions, and as a result improve the efficiency of the role holder (Kirkpatrick 1998). This process usually entails passing on skills and knowledge by more experienced practitioners to those less familiar with relevant requirements. The basic elements of a good training programme have been described as consisting of, in the first instance, planned achievable learning activities with clear objectives. These can include theoretical, behavioural, and applied elements which are measurable (Kirkpatrick 1998: 12; Knowles et al. 2005). Learning is informed by an appropriate syllabus and taught by experienced and appropriately qualified tutors (Laird 1985: 285ā287; Kirkpatrick 1998: 74ā75).
A final characteristic of effective training and education is that programmes have systems of assessment and evaluation to ensure learning outcomes have been achieved (Laird 1985: 267; Rowe and Garland 2007). This process is multi-dimensional and can consist of assessing whether training and education programmes meet their learning objectives, in terms of students or trainees being able to demonstrate their improved understanding and abilities periodically, throughout the training programme or at its conclusion. It can also include the contribution of such inputs to the improved capacity of individuals to achieve organizational goals. How learning demonstrated in classrooms or other learning environments transfers to the actual work place is fundamental to this form of evaluation (Laird 1985: 267ā272; Werth 2009). By the same token, how work experience is accredited in order to qualify for further development is another dimension of this process which is addressed by Peeters in his chapter.
Training has traditionally been viewed as being concerned with a narrow body of knowledge or skills, such as understanding appropriate legislation and how to apply it by police recruits (Birzer 2003). Training also provides psychological and emotional benefits in helping recruits identify with and feel part of the recruiting organization (Conser and Russell 2003) which is one phase of a longer socialization process (Fielding 1986; Conti 2006). The essential characteristics of education can be viewed as the provision of a body of knowledge designed to shape the individualās understanding and decision-making (Laird 1985; Roberg et al. 2002). Another precise definition of education is offered by Jarvis (2010: 41) as a āplanned series of incidents having a humanistic basis directed to the participants learning and understandingā. In its essence education seeks to improve and expand the knowledge and cognitive skills of the subject through planned interventions (Kratcoski and Das 2007: 4).
Conventional thinking about the preparation for police work defines the activities and processes involved under the rubric of training, characterized by a top-down approach to the transmission of knowledge and skills (Birzer 2003; Conser and Russell 2003). This conceptualization has been challenged (Jarvis 1992; Brew 1995; Conser and Russell 2003: 233). These authors argue that policing involves much more than passively applying precepts and practices taught in training, and can entail activities which are traditionally defined as educational in character. Examples of this are the use of analytical reasoning and problem-solving in resolving disputes. What links training and education for authors such as Laird (1985), Birzer (2003) and Wood and Tong (2008: 302) is the utilization of appropriate learning methods that complement the needs of target groups and the specific outcomes in question. This view has important implications for the role of tutors/instructors and how they perform their role and the pedagogic techniques relied on. Laird, Birzer and others reject the traditional training versus education dichotomy and adopt a more pragmatic and contingent view around the best technical means to produce desired outcomes.
The image of the trainer/educator coming from this view is an informed and flexible practitioner able to utilize various approaches and techniques ranging from traditional lectures, student-centred approaches, discussions, group work, role play and simulations, and use of technology and equipment (see Jarvis 2010, Sheldon and Wright 2010). Interestingly, despite the array of methods of delivery available to modern trainers and educators, which include the use of internet and distance learning (Cordner and Shain 2011), instructor-led programmes, according to US research continues to be a popular form of learning (Knowles et al. 2005: 296). However, as Cordner and Shain (2011: 282) note worries about costs is increasing the popularity of these alternative forms of delivery. The role and importance of the trainer transcends issues of style and methods of delivery. Trainers are very important role models and leaders and play a crucial role in the psychological conditioning and socialization of police officers, as highlighted by Moreau de Bellaing in his chapter.
Contemporary thinking emphasizes the overlapping and complementary nature of training and educational activities, which for Kratcoski and Das (2007) reflects the changing nature of police work. Contemporary policing according to them is carried out by knowledge workers, more so than skilled workers involved in routine and predictable work tasks and environments. However, a significant amount of all police work involves carrying out routine and predictable activities such as taking statements, compiling case files, and keeping or updating records (Rogers and Lewis 2007). Given the role of policing within the system of criminal justice administration in any country, these types of tasks and the bureaucratic aspects of police work are unlikely to change and may well be increasing in parts of the world (see Berlin and Chappellās chapters in this volume; Neyroud 2011: 41). Improving policing standards also too often means increasing paperwork and administration for police personnel. Kratcoski and Das are correct in that important aspects of contemporary policing require new skills and abilities in, for example, understanding other societies, systems, and practices. This can be seen in the area of policing transnational crime and terrorism in particular (Bowling and Sheptycki 2010). The chapter by Neyroud and Wain examines some of these issues and the role of an important training programme for middle-ranking officers in the Indian Police Service which is delivered in different parts of the world. Similar concerns inform the education and training of police and public security officials in China as described by Tingyou in her chapter.
The importance of police education and training
It is perhaps indicative of the difference between the status of police education and training as an area of research compared to its importance in practical terms (Jarvis 1992: 407) that very little is known about the amount of police resources that are dedicated to training and educating its personnel (Cebulla et al. 2007: 3). This is particularly ...
