Feelings in Sport

Theory, Research, and Practical Implications for Performance and Well-being

Montse Ruiz, Claudio Robazza, Montse Ruiz, Claudio Robazza, Montse C. Ruiz, Claudio Robazza

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2020
• Print ISBN:
  9780367509736
  9780367253813
• eBook ISBN:
  9781000177930
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psicología
• Subtopic: Emociones en psicología

Feeling states, including emotional experiences, are pervasive to human functioning. Feeling states deeply influence the individual's effort, attention, decision making, memory, behavioural responses, and interpersonal interactions. The sporting environment offers an ideal setting for the development of research questions and applied interventions to improve the well-being and well-functioning of the people involved.

This ground-breaking book is the first to offer cutting-edge knowledge about contemporary theoretical, methodological, and applied issues with the contributions of leading researchers and practitioners in the field. Feeling states in sports are comprehensively covered by adopting an international and multi-disciplinary perspective.

Part I covers most relevant conceptual frameworks, including emotion-centred and action-centred approaches, challenge and threat evaluations, an evolutionary approach to emotions, and the role of passion in the experience of emotion. Part II focuses on interpersonal aspects related to emotions and regulation, encompassing social and interpersonal emotion influence and regulation, social identity and group-based emotions, and performance experiences in teams. Part III presents applied indications surrounding emotional intelligence training, and emotional regulation strategies including imagery, self-talk, the use of music, mindfulness, motor skills execution under pressure, self-regulation in endurance sports, and the use of technology. Finally, Part IV examines issues related to athlete well-being, including the role of emotions in sport injury, emotional eating, and mental recovery.

Feelings in Sport: Theory, Research, and Practical Implications for Performance and Well-being is an essential source for sport psychology practitioners, researchers, sports coaches, undergraduate and postgraduate students.

Part I

Conceptual Underpinnings

1 The Multi-States (MuSt) Theory for Emotion- and Action-regulation in Sports

Montse C. Ruiz, Laura Bortoli, and Claudio Robazza

During the 2019 final of the tennis Grand Slam Roland-Garros, Rafael Nadal played against Dominic Thiem. Nadal won the first set 6–3, and lost the second set 5–7, with Thiem receiving a standing ovation from the public. Up until this point, Nadal had committed 12 unforced errors while Thiem had 7. After the second set, Nadal left the court and returned with a fresh set of clothes, wet hair, and changed bandana. He then won the next 16 of 17 points in the third set. He won the next two sets 6–1 and 6–1, and ended up winning the championship. It seems like what happened during that break was a turning point for Rafael Nadal who re-entered the court with renewed energy.

The ability to regulate one’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviours, especially in high pressure situations, is crucial for athletic success. How can athletes regulate their emotional and other feeling states to achieve or regain their optimal edge when needed? How can they regulate their task-execution to produce consistent performance? In this chapter, we describe key concepts for optimal emotion- and action-regulation in an attempt to provide answers to these questions. First, we present the multi-states (MuSt) theory, a holistic framework for self-regulation in a sporting context. We then describe the main targets for self-regulation: psychobiosocial states as the focus of emotion regulation, and core action components as the focus of action regulation. Next, we provide a stepwise procedure for the optimisation of performance. Finally, we outline avenues for future research and practical implications.

The Multi-States (MuSt) Theory for Self-Regulation

The MuSt theory is here proposed as a holistic and integrative perspective to account for the variety of performance states athletes experience in training and competition. The MuSt theory is intended to describe and understand idiosyncratic performance experiences, predict performance, and identify the most effective emotion- and action-centred self-regulation strategies. The MuSt theory is conceptualised as a dynamic and multidimensional process that involves the interactions between individual, task, and environment, appraisals of perceived resources to manage task demands, emotion- and action-based self-regulation, and performance process and outcome. Central to the MuSt theory are: (1) the concept of psychobiosocial states, with emotion as a core component; (2) core action components; and (3) the notion that a combination of emotion- and action-regulation strategies is more effective than focusing on one aspect alone (see Robazza & Ruiz, 2018). The MuSt theory draws upon and develops ideas from the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model (Hanin, 2000, 2007), the multi-action plan (MAP) model (Bortoli, Bertollo, Hanin, & Robazza, 2012; Robazza, Bertollo, Filho, Hanin, & Bortoli, 2016), the identification-control-correction programme (Hanin & Hanina, 2009), and the task execution design approach (Hanin, Hanina, Šašek, & Kobilšek, 2016). In particular, emphasis in the MuSt theory is placed on a dynamic process that extends (a) the IZOF model by including an action monitoring/control dimension in interaction with performance functionality, and (b) the MAP model by considering a wide range of psychobiosocial states. Individualised profiling procedures are fundamental in the identification of functional and dysfunctional psychobiosocial states and core action components of optimal performance, which are the basis for the regulation.

Psychobiosocial Feeling States

Feeling states, including emotional experiences, are fundamental to human adaptation, as they influence effort, attention, decision making, memory, and behavioural responses of individuals, and their interpersonal interactions. Within the IZOF model (Hanin, 2000), emotions are conceptualised as central components of performance-related psychobiosocial states, the performance process, and overall human functioning. Psychobiosocial states manifest themselves in emotional (subjective experience), as well as cognitive, motivational, volitional, bodily, motor-behavioural, operational, and communicative state modalities (Hanin, 2010; Ruiz, Hanin, & Robazza, 2016). A comprehensive description of each state modality is presented elsewhere (e.g. Ruiz et al., 2016).

Emotional subjective experiences are conceptualised based on the interaction between valence (pleasant vs. unpleasant) and functionality (functional vs. dysfunctional) distinctions (see Figure 1.1, left lower side). Thus, some experiences can be unpleasant (e.g. feeling anxious) but helpful for performance by providing energy, while others can be pleasant (e.g. feeling satisfied) but dysfunctional, reflecting a lack of effort or complacency. Athletes’ experiences can be divided into state-like experiences (right-now feelings), trait-like experiences (typical patterns of experiences), and meta-experiences (experience about the experiences). For example, an athlete may have a tendency to feel anxious in competitions (pattern), and thus, experience high anxiety at a specific encounter (state). However, they may not accept such anxiety and feel that they should be relaxed (negative meta-experience of anxiety). The concept of meta-experience is critical for self-regulation. An effective implementation of regulation strategies requires an individual’s awareness of state-like experiences and of their impact on performance. Afterwards, acceptance of these inner experiences is needed to self-regulate effectively (Hanin, 2007).

Figure 1.1 A multi-states (MuSt) theory representation deriving from monitoring/control, functionality/valence, and performance level interactions.

The MuSt theory shares with the IZOF model the notion of individual zones of optimal/non-optimal state intensities as related to performance. In the MuSt theory, this notion is extended to incorporate functional action components.

Core Action Components

Similar to the MAP model (Robazza et al., 2016), the MuSt theory claims that directing attention to a few ‘core’ components of the action helps the athlete execute a movement pattern within a functional range of variability, and therefore perform more consistently, particularly under pressure. Core action components are conceived as fundamental movements or action-related behaviours, such as ‘positioning’, ‘grip’, ‘aiming’, and ‘timing’, in precision sports (Bortoli et al., 2012), ‘effort’, ‘acceleration’, and ‘rhythm’ in endurance sports (Meijen, 2019), and visual information sources for pattern recognition and anticipation in situational sports (North & Williams, 2019). These core components are subjected to higher variability and accuracy fluctuations than automated technical elements, which are typically executed without conscious attention. Core action components are encoded and stored in long-term memory and determine the effectiveness of movement patterns. Their mental representations are idiosyncratic, and therefore differ widely among athletes. Focusing on core components is expected to enhance movement mastery and self-confidence in practice and competition.

Self-regulation strategies should involve regulation of feeling states as well as attention monitoring/control of core action components, resulting in a 2 × 2 × 2 interplay between action monitoring/control, valence, and performance functionality. These relationships are illustrated in Figure 1.1 (left side). Four performance types derive from the interaction between performance functionality and action monitoring/control (upper part), and the interplay between functionality and valence (lower part). These 2 × 2 × 2 relationships (right side) result in eight theoretically assumed performance-related feeling states.

In Type 1 state, high-level performance is associated with little action monitoring/control and functional/pleasant states. In this flow-like state, usually triggered by a challenge appraisal, the attention focus is limited to ‘supervising’ the action. Task execution, which does not rely on working memory and controlled attention (Furley, Schweizer, & Bertrams, 2015; Furley & Wood, 2016), appears to be autonomous, effortless, smooth, consistent, and effective (Csikszentmihalyi, Latter, & Duranso, 2017; Harmison, 2006). The performer feels in complete control, confident, and full of energy. However, this highly self-rewarding psychophysiological state is rarely experienced, especially when sought after. Type 2 state, which is more frequently experienced, is also prompted by a challenge appraisal, and typified by higher action monitoring with effortful attentional focus voluntarily directed toward a limited number of action components (e.g. Vitali et al., 2019). Performers in this state report pleasant or unpleasant functional states experienced with novel problems, unexpected events, demanding tasks, strenuous physical activities, competitive stress, and other situational difficulties. To attain a Type 2 state, attention should be directed to previously identified core action components to prevent excessive attention reinvestment or distraction from task-relevant cues, and to ease the transition to a more autonomous execution.

Types 3 and 4 states arise from the perception of threatening situations under stress or unpredictable issues that cause task disruption or disengagement. In Type 3 state, the performer’s attempts to deal with situational demands or recover from underperformance lead to distraction from task-relevant cues, excessive reinvestment of conscious attention to the execution of automated skills, loss of energy, impaired movement fluidity and automaticity (Masters & Maxwell, 2008; van Ginneken, Poolton, Masters, Capio, Kal, & van der Kamp, 2017). Performers usually report dysfunctional/unpleasant states. Finally, Type 4 state features low task engagement, low energy spent in goal-directed behaviours, and unfocused attention. Pleasant emotional experiences accompanying poor performances may be triggered by insufficient awareness or unstructured meta-experiences. For example, an overconfident athlete may overestimate the current situation appraising gain (victory) before the competition ends, and therefore may mobilise less energy or resources than those needed to accomplish the task. Another athlete may feel relieved from competition pressure after making a mistake s/he perceives diminishes the chance of winning, and thus may decrease effort or engagement in the activity. Beyond these four performance states, and the eight feeling states emerging from the 2 × 2 × 2 (monitoring/control × valence × performance functionality) interplay, athletes experience a range of finely tuned patterns of performance states in attempts to adapt to or deal with situational demands.

Self-regulation Process

The MuSt theory process for self-regulation is depicted in Figure 1.2. In this process, the notion of individual appraisal is central, similar to existing theoretical views, such as the biopsychosocial model (Blascovich, 2008), the theory of challenge and threat states in athletes (Jones, Meijen, McCarthy, & Sheffield, 2009; Meijen, Turner, Jones, Sheffield, & McCarthy, 2020; Uphill, Rossato, Swain, & O’Driscoll, 2019), and the cognitive-motivational-relational theory (Lazarus, 2000). Positive (i.e. challenge) and negative (i.e. threat) appraisals are motivational states that depend on one’s evaluation of anticipated benefits and harms in relevant person–environment transactions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) considering situational demands and personal resources. A positive appraisal reflects enough perceived personal resources to manage task demands, whereas a negative appraisal occurs when task demands are perceived as exceeding personal resources (see also Sammy, Harris, & Vine, 2020). Environmental factors, task demands, and personal characteristics are interactive determinants of individual appraisals, and are also critical for skill acquisition and development of sport expertise (see Renshaw, Davids, Newcombe, & Roberts, 2019). Environmental factors comprise both the location characteristics in which performance takes place (e.g. surface, climate, wind, altitude, affordances, constraints) and the social environment (e.g. teammates, coach, parents, spectators), while task demands depend on the characteristics of the skills (e.g. closed and open, self-paced and externally-paced) and type of sport (e.g. individual and team, short and long duration). Personal characteristics encompass, among others, individual motor skills, physical capacities, experience, personality traits (e.g. perfectionism, optimisms, mental toughness, emotional intelligence, sensation seeking, self-efficacy, confidence; e.g. Mosley & Laborde, 2016), preferences for emotional experiences (e.g. feeling tranquil, anxious, angry), attitudes toward action monitoring/control (e.g. external and internal attentional focus, flow experiences, clutch states; e.g. Swann, Crust, & Vella, 2017), and spontaneous or acquired self-regulation skills.

A positive appraisal is expected to lead to eith...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• Lists of Figures
• List of Tables
• List of Contributors
• Foreword
• Preface
• PART I: Conceptual Underpinnings
• PART II: Social Aspects – Interpersonal Regulation
• PART III: Applied Issues
• PART IV: Athlete Well-being
• Index