International Perspectives on Inclusion within Society and Education

Mabel Ann Brown

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2020
• eBook ISBN:
  9781000201864
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

International Perspectives on Inclusion within Society and Education explores how the theme of inclusion in education and society plays out across different nations and cultures. Covering topics like dual citizenship, political loyalty, and migration, it includes important discussions around poverty, educational disadvantage, youth radicalisation and inequality.

With perspectives from a wide range of countries, including the USA, UK, Finland, Kosovo, Albania, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and India, this book explores how issues of inclusion are often decided by a majority for the majority, which can lead to included minorities feeling disadvantaged and paradoxically excluded. While setting up a strong case for inclusion in society and education, it considers factors such as poverty and mental health both nationally and internationally and evaluates the effectiveness of additional financial resources and educational support in creating an inclusive world.

This book will be of great interest for academics, researchers, and post graduate students in the fields of comparative education, inclusive education, sociology, political sciences and social work.

Part one

International inclusion or exclusion

Inclusion in society, dual citizenship, political loyalty, and migration

1 Inclusion in society and education – an introduction

Mabel Ann Brown

Inclusion in society and education

This book International Perspectives on Inclusion within Society and Education explores the theme of inclusion in education, in society and across nations. Inclusion is a social necessity that begins in childhood on the playground but plays out on the world stage across the globe. Inclusion leads to powerful groups and the exclusion of others; it requires power and control, which is both nationally and internationally healthy and unhealthy. This book explores the theme across nations and cultures and reflects on the role inclusion plays in different societies. The following chapters are provided by academic colleagues in the USA, the United Kingdom, Finland, Kosovo, Albania, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and India. These chapters consider citizenship, interculturalism, education, radicalisation, poverty and migration.

The boundaries for inclusion are often decided by a majority for the majority, which can lead to included minorities feeling disadvantaged. Inclusion often has control mechanisms and policies such as you can be in our group if . . . but are they a recipe for a healthy world?

This book has emerged as a reflection on the need to be included, but also the consequences and responsibilities of that inclusion. In Britain for instance there is both a desire to be included in the European Union, but also a desire to retain some individuality. Similarly, in the United States there is a desire for union, but also a desire for state recognition. Inclusion is closely linked to domination and an underlying recognition of control, which can create a climate of fear and resistance, leading to a breakdown within the group or a need to compromise or give something in order to maintain control (Apple 2018: 6). If the inclusion is socially responsive and less self-interested then the relationship is beneficial with strength in numbers and reassurance of self-worth. This theme of inclusion can be observed on the playground and right across the globe with Apple (2018: 6) suggesting that it is just as important ‘to keep things out as it is important to let things in.’ Frequently there are dominant economic and capitalist forces limiting opportunities for inclusion as demonstrated in the Czech and Polish chapters in this book.

Capitalist financial capability also plays a part in education. Parents with the financial means seek inclusion in a certain kind of school for their children in order to give their children a perceived advantage. Apple (2018: 4) argues that ‘neoliberals, neo conservatives, authoritarian populists, religious movements all have their own agenda to meet their own needs’ with different ongoing ideas, supposedly for the common good. Inclusion is supposedly for the common good, but always there will be some included and some excluded whether for political, financial, national, international, social, gender, religious or health reasons.

This book attempts to explore why inclusion is so difficult to achieve in its entirety, both on the local scale and on the national and international scale. International Perspectives on Inclusion within Society and Education will be of interest to academics, researchers, undergraduates and post graduate students in the disciplines of education, sociology, political sciences, social work and history. The theme of inclusion is often covered in academic educational courses and social work courses. It is also of increasing interest in education to consider collections that present international case studies on a related theme. It could also be of interest to students studying inter-disciplinary modules or with an interest in the critical theories of inclusion. This book could fit into a general social science collection within a library. Academic studies in education is also an increasing market, this book could be of assistance to these students. International students would also find this book interesting and useful both at undergraduate and post graduate level. This book has an international focus and will appeal to the different contributor’s nations. This book offers an international, cross disciplinary study, based on case studies in a very current and important subject area.

The international element is a developing area in academia, particularly in international cross -cultural research and more recently as a result of extensive migration. This book draws on academic reading and the contributor’s primary, personal knowledge of what is happening in their country and their understanding of societal situations. The chapters are not politically motivated, but they do discuss some subjects that may be controversial.

The chapters will fulfil a need to understand how inclusion works and how important it is for the major groups in society to work together rather than overreach themselves in the desire for ever bigger groups and more power. An example of this can be taken from the European Union where the greater the trans national political parties are, the ‘more time its MEPs are given to speak in debates and the greater their chance of being chosen to chair a committee’ (Europe’s curious parliament in The Week 2019: 13). Thus, bigger groups gain power and domination and raise questions about the significance of inclusion.

First, we must ask, who decides, who is included and how do they decide? Immediately there is a suggestion of power or dominance. There are times, when it is essential to challenge the notion of inclusion so that the dominance is restrained, and the included group do not become enslaved. Apple (2018: 138) suggests the ‘We’ must be challenged to ‘illuminate the path to new politics of voice and recognition.’ Apple is in this instance referring to education, but it could apply to society groups too. Education is at the heart of recreating a democratic, inclusive society, although frequently there are hidden agendas within education, that make education less inclusive and democratic. Education is political and it is the way in which views are passed on to the next generation although as Dewey in Kricke and Neubert (2020: 50) points out ‘we never educate directly, but indirectly by means of the environment,’ and by environment Dewey meant the whole context of a person. The context can be the neighbourhood thus some families will have access to very different neighbourhoods and this can provide access to certain schools or facilities. Thus, we must ask ourselves who and why some are included more so than others? The answer lies perhaps in a reluctance to ‘threaten the existing ethnic-economic order, something policy makers are reluctant to do’ (Cooper et al 2006: 48). Inclusion, therefore, in the first instance is selective by the more powerful for the maintenance of a certain order. Apple (2006: 9) refers to this as ‘educational policy and practice are the results of struggles by powerful groups and social movements to make their knowledge legitimate to defend or increase their patterns of social mobility and to increase their power in the larger social arena.’ Criticism of these groups is a way of checking their dominance and reducing the potential for ‘arrogance and self-importance’ (Apple 2006: 4–5).

Second, once within this group, we need to ask how it is held together and does this inclusion lead to oppression and a sense of keeping that person or nation in a certain subsidiary position. Is it possible that policies are created in order to both create greater centrality and barriers in order to exclude others? An example of this can be found in education. Policies become in reality ‘partial, biased and unequal’ (Cooper et al 2006: 49) in the attempts to equalise the opportunities through redistributive measures such as vouchers or additional support or extra funding particularly in education. At the heart of educational policies are, or should be, ‘concerns for equity and social justice’ (Cooper et al 2006: 49), although there has been a leaning towards ‘efficiency and excellence’ and ‘accountability’ (Cooper et al 2006: 49), but this is difficult to achieve due to ‘an unlevel playing field’ (Cooper et al 2006: 49) caused by poverty and disadvantage or an inability to attend the school of parental choice. Schools have become a competitive market, with the view of improving standards, as demonstrated by PISA statistics, but this has created division and selectivity. Education is the tool of society, and thus what happens in education affects society and what happens in society affects education. However, we ‘have the responsibility to say no’ to antidemocratic actions and ‘affirm what is less dominative and more caring’ (Apple 2001: 13).

There is inclusion within social classes, there is inclusion within national groups and international groups frequently possibly determined by power and influence, but who has decided these liaisons; is it based on finance, identity or heritage or religion or some other common element? Woodward and Kohli (2001: 4) suggest ‘three basic dimensions of membership or inclusion – political, economic and civic inclusion.’ Woodward and Kohli (2001: 4) also state that there is a ‘relation between individual and society,’ that is one of ‘simultaneous inclusion and exclusion.’

Inclusion

Apple (2018: 137) describes inclusion as the ‘We’ group and anyone not included as the ‘Other.’ In more local United Kingdom terms, it would be ‘Us’ as the gang and the others would be ‘them.’ The ‘we function as a mechanism’ according to (Apple 2018: 137) ‘not only of inclusion but powerfully of exclusion as well.’ The ‘We’ group are the ‘dominant group’ (Apple 2018: 138), ‘leaving some people, who are not included.’ Thus, inclusion can lead to dominance and power which can be used inappropriately and leading to unanticipated consequences. An example of this could be, a dominant, powerful, ruling class, ignoring the wishes of 52 per cent of the voters in the United Kingdom in order to remain within the European Union.

The term inclusion in one sense means belonging to a ‘gang’ or not belonging and this can create many issues. Lister (in Ellison and Pierson 1998:53) claims ‘the boundaries of inclusion and exclusion operate at both legal and a sociological level through formal and substantive modes of citizenship.’ This refers in particular to passports and documentation and rights and obligations, thus demonstrating the breadth of the inclusion theme. This theme of citizenship and passports is explored further in the Finnish chapter in this book in Chapter 5.

There can be issues of identity or issues of behaving in a manner that is or is not in-keeping with the group. In one sense, inclusion can be a very positive concept in that it is welcoming to some, but it can also produce a negative effect, that of exclusion such as referred to in Mary Drosopulos chapter. The chapters in this book question the idea of inclusion and demonstrate how and what is beneficial in terms of inclusion. The Czech chapter clearly demonstrates how poor housing can lead to a feeling of exclusion and isolation. The American chapter illustrates how creating support courses also distinguishes one group of people from another. People with health issues, both mental and physical, also create distinctive groups and may experience exclusion. Similarly, women can be treated less favourably as in the India chapter or the citizens prospects can be affected by caste.

Some children in the United Kingdom are excluded from school due to consistent poor behaviour, autism or emotional issues. ‘In 2016–2017 there were 381,865 fixed period exclusions or suspensions in schools in England,’ claim Bennett and Guzzardi (2018: 18). David Isaac the chairman of Equalities and Human Rights (EHRC) also in Bennett and Guzzardi (2018: 18) stated that if we want a fair and inclusive society this needs to be addressed and yet their rights impact on other children’s right to learn and on other children and teachers’ rights to be safe from aggressive behaviour. In this situation full inclusion can only ever be an aspiration and exclusion, must remain an option. However, when young people are excluded from one option, it leaves them open for another, thus many excluded young people end up joining drug gangs, where they find ‘cash, food, expensive trainers and the stability and comradeship they rarely enjoy at home’ (Exclusion Zone 2028: 33).

Conclusion

The conclusion hopes to consider the impact inclusion has on practice, both in society and in education. It will also attempt to seek ways forward and what lessons can be learnt from these chapters. The findings from sections one, two and three of this book, will be considered and analysed in the light of other chapters in the same sections.

Economics is at the heart of most inclusive groups. Those with money seek union for their greater good and those without money seek group identity for survival.

These chapters reflect some areas where inclusion is significant, educationally, socially, and both nationally and internationally. There are contributing chapters from professionals based in the USA, in the United Kingdom, in Finland, in Kosovo and Albania, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Czech Republic and India. These professionals consider some of the more controversial issues of inclusion within their country. These include dual citizenship, interculturalism, education and inclusion, radicalization into groups, poverty, disadvantage and exclusion and migrants and instability. All the contributors are academic practitioners working in the contributing countries with access to practice and practical local knowledge as well as academic knowledge. In the words of Woodward and Kohli (2001:4), ‘inclusion is social i...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• List of contributors
• Acknowledgements
• Abbreviations/terminology
• Part One International inclusion or exclusion: inclusion in society, dual citizenship, political loyalty and migration
• Part Two Poverty, educational disadvantage, and inclusion: youth radicalization, vulnerability, disadvantage and inequality
• Part Three Education and inclusion: education for all, cohesive society, oppression, disability, disadvantage
• Index