Truth, Lies and Trust on the Internet

Monica T. Whitty, Adam Joinson

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2008
• eBook ISBN: 9781135420437
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: History & Theory in Psychology
• Index: Psychology

The Internet is often presented as an unsafe or untrustworthy space: where children are preyed upon by paedophiles, cannibals seek out victims, offline relationships are torn apart by online affairs and where individuals are addicted to gambling, love, and cybersex.

While many of these stories are grounded in truth, they do paint a rather sensationalized view of the Internet, the types of people who use it, and the interactions that take place online. Simultaneously, researchers claim that the Internet allows individuals to express their true selves, to develop 'hyperpersonal' relationships characterised by high levels of intimacy and closeness. At the heart of these competing visions of the Internet as a social space are the issues of truth, lies and trust.

This book offers a balanced view of the Internet by presenting empirical data conducted by social scientists, with a concentrated focus on psychological studies. It argues that the Internet's anonymity which can enable, for instance, high levels of self-disclosure in a relationship, is also responsible for many of its more negative outcomes such as deception and flaming. This is the first book to develop a coherent model of the truth-lies paradox, with specific reference to the critical role of trust.

Truth, Lies and Trust on the Internet is a useful text for psychology students and academics interested in Internet behaviour, technology, and online deviant behaviour, and related courses in sociology, media studies and information studies.

1 Introduction

The number of people who have access to the Internet and the number of hours people spend online are still increasing. Its form continues to change and develop. Fads come and go. New online communities emerge, some old ones remain. Relationships are initiated and developed and people break up on the Internet.

Scholars across a variety of disciplines have studied how people interact online, their expectations of how this space should work, how it sometimes disappoints, and how it sometimes pleasantly surprises. Some scholars have taken the position that people lie more online than any other medium, while others have argued that people are more honest in this space. So which is it? Are people more dishonest or honest on the Internet? In this book we take the position that it is both.

Our book presents what we believe to be the truth-lies paradox of the Internet. We do this via a psychological lens, while still drawing from a variety of disciplines. We argue that researchers need to acknowledge that both openness and deceit are encouraged online. At the heart of these competing visions of the Internet as a social space, we also argue that we need to consider how trust plays a role. Without trust the Internet would look very different to how it currently operates.

This book begins by considering truth. In the following chapter we do so by examining self-disclosures on the Internet. Chapter 2 highlights the literature which has demonstrated that people are more likely to disclose information about themselves on the Internet compared to equivalent face-to-face (FtF) encounters. Often these self-disclosures are very secret aspects of a person’s life (e.g. their sexual preferences). Knowing that people self-disclose more online is not only important in helping researchers understand online interactions, but also useful for those wanting to conduct their research in this space. Doing so could possibly reveal a different truth than perhaps administering a survey FtF (a notion we take up further in Chapter 5).

In Chapter 2 we also claim that how much is self-disclosed on the Internet depends on where people are communicating and with whom they are sharing their intimate details. For instance, many studies have shown that people are more likely to self-disclose when they are anonymous and when they are talking to strangers on the Internet. In contrast, we would expect self-disclosure in social networking sites such as MySpace, Bebo and Facebook to be different, given that often the audience is typically known to the person self-disclosing. Weblogs (personal online diaries) again probably set a different scene for self-disclosures given their structure and purpose.

Self-disclosing more or being ‘hyperhonest’ can be beneficial in a number of ways. It can allow an individual to unburden themselves. It can be cathartic or therapeutic. Moreover, it can bring about stronger connections with others online which often leads to close friendships and romance. Being too honest though can have a price to pay as it can drive some people away (e.g. being too honest about one’s negative aspects on an online dating profile).

In Chapter 3 we go into more detail as to how being hyperhonest about oneself can lead to budding relationships on the Internet. Here we point out that the initial limitations people believed would prevent close relationships developing online were quickly overcome. This is because individuals learnt alternative ways to express themselves and their true feelings for others without the use of non-verbal cues we so often rely upon (even if they do this often unconsciously).

The type of self we present to others can make a difference as to whether a relationship will progress in cyberspace. In Chapter 3 we demonstrate that this is also dependent on which online space individuals meet in. For instance, in newsgroups and chat rooms, presentations of a more ‘inner truth’ can lead to close relationships that have been known to move successfully offline. However, this is not the case for dating sites. Instead, online daters who present a more accurate presentation of their everyday selves are more likely to get beyond the first date.

Some people arguably benefit more from the unique space that is cyberspace. Shy and socially anxious individuals have been found to prefer many spaces online to get to know others. In particular, it has been found that shy people enjoy meeting potential romantic partners in newsgroups and on online dating sites.

Does telling greater truths online have any other benefits than simply developing close relationships? In Chapter 4 we make the claim that the Internet does provide new benefits for people and that psychologists should be especially interested in knowing more about these benefits. We begin the chapter by noting the early research which argued that the Internet caused people to become lonely and that weak ties were detrimental rather than helpful. We then proceed to consider the research which rebutted these initial claims and presented the alternative view that weak ties can be helpful and that people can feel genuinely supported by others on the Internet. In contrast to the view that the Internet makes people lonely is the view that lonely people benefit from their online social encounters. In order to benefit from the Internet, however, users need to know how to use it and feel confident in their ability; that is, they need to be high in Internet self-efficacy.

Chapter 4 also considers online social support groups. Some of these are set up by experts, while others are run by laypeople. Either way, the support available via these groups is typically both informational and empathetic. Support groups have been set up for a range of problems, from medical through to disabilities and psychological difficulties. It is no wonder that people are flocking to these sites. Despite the many benefits that these online social support groups offer, the negative consequence of signing up to them also needs to be considered. For example, some sites provide misinformation, sometimes there is conflict amongst group members and some people may become too reliant on this form of support. Given this, more research is clearly required to ensure people gain the most from online support groups.

In Chapter 5 we discuss how researchers might best use the Internet to recruit participants and examine psychological and social issues. In this chapter we point out research that has found that individuals often admit to socially undesirable behaviours online more than they would FtF. Moreover, they are more likely to disclose sensitive information about themselves on a computer compared to traditional pencil and paper surveys. Importantly, however, it is pointed out here that this heightened truthfulness in online research environments is not guaranteed and that there are certain techniques researchers need to be aware of if they are hoping to obtain greater self-disclosure via online research methodologies. For example, people have to believe they can trust the site where they are answering the survey and the researchers who are conducting the study.

In addition to knowing the optimal conditions for conducting research online, scholars need to be ensuring that they conduct their research in an ethical manner. Chapter 5 also considers ethical issues pertinent to online research. For example, how do we still ensure informed consent, ability to withdraw consent, confidentiality and debriefing? These questions need to be considered in light of the online space being researched. For example, we make the case that moderated sites ought to acquire the consent of both the participants and the moderators who run the site (as one would with any offline organisation). While organisations are rewriting their ethical guidelines (e.g. The British Psychological Society) there still is not total consensus. Future researchers of the Internet will obviously need to adhere to new guidelines as well as reflect on their practices to ensure they are conducting ethical research.

As we pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, this is not a book simply about truth on the Internet. The other side of the coin, deceit and dishonesty, is equally important for researchers to acknowledge and consider. Chapters 6 through to 8 consider the variety of ways in which individuals misrepresent themselves and blatantly lie on the Internet. Chapter 6 examines the numerous types of online deception and how this has impacted on individuals and online communities. We especially focus on two forms of deception—identity-based and message-based deception. Identity-based deception, for example, might involve pretending to be a legitimate member of a group or gender-switching. Message-based deception, in contrast, involves the content of the communication (e.g. lying to one’s spouse about being at work when one is really in the pub having a couple of pints).

As we illustrate in Chapter 6 some lies told online can have costly consequences for those who are taken in by the lie. Phishing, for instance, tricks people into handing over information which allows scammers to break into their bank accounts. Another more fairly well known scam, named the Nigerian e-mail scam, has not only cost people money but sometimes their lives. Readers will be pleased to know, however, that there are strategies they can employ in an attempt to work out whether they are being lied to.

Are people more likely to lie on the telephone, FtF or on the Internet? In Chapter 6 we consider this question. We examine a number of theories that have been devised to explain lying behaviour, including social distance theory, media richness theory and features-based theory. We also look at empirical studies that have been conducted to test out these theories. While the research is still fairly scant, it seems that not only do we need to consider the communication medium, but also the type of lie and the target of the lie.

Chapter 7 considers lying on online dating sites. We examine here the more common types of misrepresentation evident on such sites. For example, on the profiles people construct for these sites individuals often lie or exaggerate about their looks, personality, age, intentions, socio-economic status and relationship status. Given that online daters are aware that others misrepresent themselves on these sites, as discussed in this chapter, individuals look for ‘indicators of trust’ to help decide whether the potential date is worthwhile getting to know further offline. For example, cliché-type profiles were often overlooked by online daters. The screening out process for online daters, however, continues offline. As this chapter illustrates, the first FtF meeting is more a checking exercise than a traditional first date. If the online dater matches up to their profile, the relationship then progresses after this date in a more traditional sense.

Do people intentionally lie on online dating sites? In Chapter 7 we consider whether people are telling out-and-out lies or instead presenting a different self online. This chapter also examines which version of the truth is more likely to lead to budding romantic relationships. However, we also highlight here a much more malicious type of lie told by some on these sites. This is known as the ‘romance scam’, which is another version of the Nigerian e-mail scam. Given that it is a fairly new scam, it has been known to catch out quite a number of unsuspecting online daters.

In Chapter 8 we look at how people have lied online about their status or kept their online interactions a secret from their offline partner. This is what psychologists refer to as Internet infidelity, which is widely agreed to be a real form of betrayal. As we demonstrate in this chapter, online relationship transgressions can be both sexual and emotional. For example, sexual acts can include cybersex, hot chatting and flirtation. Emotional betrayal might include falling in love with someone online or sharing intimate details about oneself. In this chapter we also consider why these behaviours might be considered as real forms of cheating. Individuals have also been known to seek out others online in order to engage in offline affairs. In Chapter 8 we also look at online sites which have been set up to assist individuals looking for an offline affair.

When it comes to offline betrayal, research often finds that men are more upset by sexual transgressions, while women are more upset by emotional transgressions. In Chapter 8 we examine whether research to date has found similar gender differences with Internet infidelity. This chapter considers theories, such as the evolutionary theory and double-shot hypotheses, which attempt to account for these gender differences.

Issues of trust are considered throughout the book. Nonetheless, we felt it important to consider trust in more detail, given that trust is of the utmost importance if relationships and communities are to exist online. The research on trust online makes a distinction between trusting people and trusting online features (e.g. trusting a website, an online questionnaire or online casino). In addition, as highlighted in this book, people use the Internet for a range of activities that require trust, such as banking, shopping, running businesses and engaging in work activities.

In Chapter 9 we argue that trust is multidimensional. In this chapter we discuss how individuals build trust in interpersonal computer mediated communication. For example, people go about reducing uncertainty about others online by asking direct probing questions. In turn, to instil trust in others people self-disclose in more detail than they would normally FtF and provide photographs about themselves to establish credibility. We also look at how people trust online places which on the surface would appear highly risky to trust. For example, eBay is risky for both sellers and buyers to trust and yet it is a highly successful place for individuals to trade and buy goods. We look at how this site has managed to earn such a good reputation. The types of online websites that are more trustworthy are also considered in this chapter. Moreover, it might surprise some to know that people often make up their minds about the trustworthiness of a site within milliseconds.

Chapter 10 highlights another dark side of online interactions—that of cyber-harassment and cyberstalking. In this chapter we show the difficulties in trusting that others will not harass us online or use the Internet to locate us in order to harass us offline. This chapter presents a number of case studies to illustrate the different ways that individuals have been known to be stalked or harassed online. For example, some individuals who have experienced unrequited love have been known to spread vicious and untrue rumours on the Internet as revenge. Organisations have also suffered as a consequence of untruths told about them online. These lies can be spread very quickly in cyberspace. Fortunately, many countries are formally recognising cyber-harassment and cyberstalking as ‘real’ crimes and legislation has been written to deal with this criminal activity. Moreover, given that cyber-harassment can occur within work organisations, workplaces are starting to develop cogent policies in an attempt to obviate this problem. The problem for organisations, however, is that their employees can be cyber-harassed by people from outside the organisation.

In Chapter 11 we argue that some people trust others a little too readily on the Internet. This chapter warns people about how online privacy can be quickly eroded. This relates to a number of different types of privacy: for example, informational privacy, accessibility privacy and expressive privacy. Our privacy online can potentially be invaded not only by strangers but also by family and friends. Moreover, software has been specifically designed to make it easy to do so. For example, online monitoring software is being marketed for those who do not trust their spouses. One can monitor not only which sites their spouses visit but every word their spouses write in cyberspace, be that in e-mail, newsgroups, Instant Messenger, and so forth.

In Chapter 11 we make the argument that because of changes in society and technology, what would be considered acceptable surveillance has altered in recent times. For example, it is fairly common for individuals to run a Google search on someone they have just met. Moreover, workplaces these days are more likely to believe that it is acceptable to monitor their workers—even without their knowledge. This attitude obviously affects employees, many of whom are unhappy with having their employers spying on their Internet activities.

The link between privacy and trust is considered in more detail in Chapter 12. This chapter considers online counselling and the need for both clients and therapists to trust one another in cyberspace. Without this trust, online therapy would obviously be impossible. Online counselling comes in many forms. There have even been computer programs developed to conduct counselling. These programs are still quite crude, but there is the possibility that more sophisticated systems could replace human counsellors in the future. Perhaps more important, however, is the fact that online counselling is reaching a wider range of people in need—those who perhaps could not afford offline counselling and those who would not have sought out counselling had it not been for the Internet. Nonetheless, therapists need to take into account that online counselling is not for everyone. Finally, this chapter considers key aspects of online counselling that therapists need to consider in more depth—from practicalities such as legal implications to options such as avatar therapy.

In many ways the Internet is a very different medium from, for example, the telephone and FtF. What makes this space unique is how we communicate within it. As we illustrate in this book, often our communication is ‘hyperhonest’ and paradoxically it is often ‘hyperdishonest’. These two contrasting features should be of concern for scholars, web designers and of course the users of the Internet. Moreover, how people manage to trust this space and how much their trust is justified cannot be ignored. We hope that by the time you, the reader, get to the end of this book you too will have a better understanding of the importance of understanding truth, lies and trust on the Internet.

2 Let’s talk about me, me, me

Self-disclosure on the internet

There are only two ways of telling the complete truth—anonymously and posthumously.

(Thomas Sowell 1930)

Sometimes it is easier to tell the truth to strangers than to close friends or family. In fact, quite often people go to extreme lengths to hide information from those close to them, while simultaneously confiding in strangers. This is what psychologists refer to as the ‘stranger-on-the-train phenomenon’ (discussed in more detail in Chapter 3). In this chapter, we look at self-disclosure on the Internet—what it is and how it is measured, how being online influences it and the possible implications for people’s well-being.

Self-disclosure is the telling of the previously unknown so that it becomes shared knowledge, the ‘process of making the self known to others’ (Jourard and Lasakow 1958: 91). The converse of self-disclosure is secrecy, keeping personal information to ourselves. However, not all self-disclosure is equal—especially when online. Disclosing one’s age, sex and location in response to the query (‘a/s/l?’) is not equivalent to disclosing a deeply held fear or vulnerability. Self-disclosure is also best understood within the context of a specific interaction; that is, when thinking about disclosure, it is important to recognise the recipient as well as the prota...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• List of tables
• List of figures
• 1 Introduction
• 2 Let’s talk about me, me, me: self-disclosure on the Internet
• 3 The role of truth in relationship formation online
• 4 Misery loves company: emotional and practical support online
• 5 Online research, ethics and the candid participant
• 6 Online deception, fraud, spam and cons
• 7 Short, light and ugly: misrepresentation of the self in online dating sites
• 8 Cheating with a mouse: Internet infidelity
• 9 Building trust through communication
• 10 Cyberstalking and harassment: violating trust
• 11 Surveillance, privacy and trust
• 12 Developing trust in online counselling
• 13 Concluding thoughts
• References