Environmental Ethics in Buddhism

A Virtues Approach

Pragati Sahni

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2007
• Print ISBN: 9780415396790
• eBook ISBN: 9781134154524
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Philosophy
• Subtopic: Eastern Philosophy

Environmental Ethics in Buddhism presents a logical and thorough examination of the metaphysical and ethical dimensions of early Buddhist literature. The author determines the meaning of nature in the early Buddhist context from general Buddhist teachings on dhamma, paticcasamuppada, samsara and the cosmogony of the Agganna Sutta. Consequently, the author shows that early Buddhism can be understood as an environmental virtue ethics. To illustrate this dimension, the Jatakas are used as a source. These are a collection of over five hundred folk tales, which also belong to early Buddhist literature. This work gives an innovative approach to the subject, which puts forward a distinctly Buddhist environmental ethics that is in harmony with traditional teachings as well as adaptable and flexible in addressing environmental problems.

1 TOWARDS AN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN BUDDHISM

I entrust myself to earth,
Earth entrusts herself to me.
I entrust myself to Buddha,
Buddha entrusts herself to me.
Thich Nhat Hanh, Being Peace

Introduction

Dealing with questions concerning the nature and description of an environmental ethics in early Buddhism is a complicated task. Early Buddhism does not contain a defined environmental ethics.¹ Its central concern was suffering or dukkha that penetrated every aspect of life and the ultimate culmination of Buddhist teachings was in the attainment of liberation or nibbāna which spelt the end of suffering. Direct concerns related to the natural world and environmental devastation got little mention in early Buddhist texts. This can be attributed to the cultural context and mood of early Buddhism. Environmental ethics, on the other hand, is a relatively new area of study that became popular approximately four or so decades ago with the awareness that environmental resources were rapidly diminishing due to unsustainable overuse by human beings. There was a dire need to address issues related to environmental devastation and to understand in depth their implications for the fate of present and future generations of organisms and objects on this planet. Thus environmental ethics as well as other areas of environmental studies gained much attention. Not faced with such issues it is hardly surprising that Buddhist scriptures contain scant or no ideas that even faintly resemble a contemporary environmental ethics.

At the same time, and despite the above, it is often believed that the seed of environmental ethics is contained in Buddhist literature and nurturing this can lead to a philosophy of nature which is bound to have a profound effect on the protection of natural resources and of nature as a whole including animals. The relation between human beings and nature in Buddhism being contemplated as intimate and constant due to arguments in Buddhist texts that support human-animal continuity in the experiential world, trees acquiring respect due to their fruit and shade-giving qualities, the imperative of non-violence and many other factors support this belief. It has been remarked that “. . . there is much within traditional Buddhist ethics that does indeed speak to the ethical aspects of the environmental crisis confronting us today . . .”² Based on these factors, scholars have attempted to form a notion of environmental ethics in Buddhism. But most such notions somehow fall short, for these scholars are not always able to defend themselves against the criticisms of those who hold the view that a firm adherence to Buddhist soteriology makes any form of environmental ethics impossible. It is believed predominantly that nearly all Buddhist teachings in their application to the environment remain unclear and ambiguous. Thus scholars at both ends of the spectrum have legitimate reason to trust their own interpretation and doubt others. Emerging from this it is no surprise then that much uncertainty and mystification in this area of study continues to exist.

Thus delineating the Buddhist response to nature remains a palpable challenge that must be enquired into in all seriousness. An investigation must be conducted to determine whether a favourable reaction to environmental matters can be discovered on the basis of which an environmental ethics can be developed that overcomes the above concerns. The indisputable objective of the ethical and metaphysical framework of Buddhist philosophy is enlightenment. The central aim of this book is to determine whether this framework contains, in addition, a compelling enough environmental dimension that warrants the development of a meaningful and satisfying relationship with the environment.

Method

In keeping with this endeavour an examination of a portion of early Buddhist literature with the objective of finding out whether an environmental ethics exists within its parameters is taken on in this book. Those ideas and principles that actively imply and partake of such an ethics shall be identified and discussed to bring to light the possibility of a genuine environmental ethics in early Buddhism. But before this can be done the stage, so to speak, must be set. It is extremely important to seek clarifications in the field of environmental ethics itself, particularly in the non-Buddhist context. The reason for choosing to bring in non-Buddhist ideas (even to a very limited extent) is to recognize the contemporary nature of environmental ethics and to acknowledge the relevance of these ideas to environmental theory especially if the latter is to be developed in Buddhism to be of significance in the modern world. The other reason for bringing in some non-Buddhist ideas is the presence of recurrent occasions in the past where Buddhist counterparts to environmental terms have been projected without any explication of the latter’s true meaning or scope of reference. The inappropriate and loose use of environmental concepts has caused many serious problems and misunderstandings in the area of Buddhism and ecology. By seeking clarifications such instances can be avoided.

However, at the outset, I admit to being aware that in doing the above I run the risk of added confusions which are connected with speculating whether certain attitudes and ideas belonging to a particular time and mood can be integrated suitably or successfully into the ethos and outlook of diametrically opposed traditions. I may be open to the charge of trying to attribute contemporary ideas to the Buddhist way of thinking that do not belong there. I do not allow such views to undermine my enquiry for I have a deeper motive at heart: to uncover the many ideas that reveal foundational formulations on which environmental principles can be based in Buddhism. And this happens largely through a very basic understanding, and application of non-Buddhist concepts. However, always aware of the above charges, even while I use non-Buddhist ideas to begin with because I find them indispensable, I do so with the knowledge that the utmost care is required in their use. David Little has rightly argued that when we use terms in comparative studies, we must be careful to limit their meanings and must be “more, rather than less attentive to the various jobs those terms do for us.”³ I believe that once such caution is adopted the proper scope of an environmental ethics within Buddhism itself will be known. It can be added here that despite this exercise, in ultimate analysis the Buddhist position comes to hold its own and stands uniquely established in its own right.

This is a philosophical study that aims to analyse select Buddhist literature in detail to determine the shape and scope of environmental ethics within its annals. As mentioned earlier, Buddhist literature presents a perplexing picture. On the one hand it is indeed challenging to ascertain contemporary environmental features such as those, for instance, that address value, justice, conservation and sustainability. On the other hand there are ideas and beliefs in this ancient religion that apply to the world and nature (such as dependent origination) in a unique way and these can be embraced by an environmental ethicist quite progressively. In all likelihood the former can limit the latter. However when viewed differently such limitations lose their force (as will be shown in due course) and so are not permanently debilitating. A change in view would help in addressing the ambiguity of literary sources also that has disturbed claims to a consistent notion of Buddhist ecology. For this the possibility of investigation must be expansive. Accordingly Buddhist literature is explored not only for its deeper soteriological issues but also for those additional factors concerning the world and nature that get exposed inadvertently. Buddhism moreover has a deep moral perspective regarding actions and their consequences. Monitoring actions (vis-à-vis choices) of human beings can have a significant bearing on the environment. Thus beliefs about morality and other related matters will be continuously focused upon in the course of this book in the hope that these will support the emerging outlines of an environmental ethics.

Furthermore, my study will presuppose certain significant features of the Buddhist world-view that must be acknowledged by any Buddhist environmental ethics claiming legitimacy. These features, that form the core of almost all other Buddhist studies and are often cited, are inexorably interlinked with one another. Though mentioned below in brief my subsequent deliberations will keep returning to some of them frequently. These features are as follows:

1. Buddhists do not respond to questions about the existence of God. The Buddha in general is believed to have maintained a silence when asked metaphysical questions of this nature. However, clearly, the concept of God as the omnipotent and omniscient creạtor of the world is rejected and He cannot be held responsible for the state of the world. The Buddha is not regarded as a God either but his experiences of the true reality of the Four Noble Truths and attainment of enlightenment have gained a sacred status.
2. A fundamental belief that underlies all Buddhist thinking is the doctrine of kamma, according to which all intentional actions have consequences. Actions freely and intentionally performed lead to certain consequences. There is no escape from consequences and if persons do not suffer or enjoy them in this lifetime these are bound to follow them into the next. Thus consequences are strictly determined (even though the Buddha admitted that certain factors could affect their intensity). In other words the individual must act out of free will and must then bear the burden of the determined consequences of such actions. The quality of kamma is subtle here and so encompassing that the whole notion of individual responsibility becomes illuminated. It is also made adequately clear that intentional actions can be conceived as good or bad, right or wrong. This forms the foundation of the moral essence of the religion.
3. Kamma is acted out within samsāra, which is metaphorically speaking a stage or platform where actions are performed as also the state of wandering beings. It is characterized as endless and cyclical. According to Buddhist literature samsāra is divided into levels or realms and beings are born into these according to the actions that they have performed in the past. Samsāra includes realms such as heaven for moral beings and hell for evil and immoral ones. The experience of good or bad realms depends solely on the nature of actions performed. Thus responsibility of birth in samsāra and its various realms rests on the individual himself.
4. Connected with kamma and samsāra is the early Buddhist theory of rebirth. Buddhists believe that individuals are born over and over to suffer the consequences of their deeds. In fact the present life is an outcome of the acts performed in previous lives and the acts of this life will be responsible for the quality of future lives. Consequences generate a power that propels rebirth and ensures that this life is not the only one. Thus there is continuity between birth and death and then birth again and so on such that the thought of absolute annihilation at death (without enlightenment) is not considered.
5. And finally, early Buddhism believes that all the above features have at their centre the notion of dukkha. Dukkha forms the focal point of Buddhist philosophy and underlies all existence. Though difficult to explain, it includes all sorts of bodily pain and psychical anguish, sorrows, existential angst and unsatisfied needs and even joys, due to their impermanent nature. Life is marked by the constant strife to overcome dukkha. However Buddhists see an end to dukkha and therefore to constant rebirth in the samsāric universe in the attainment of nibbāna through the Eightfold Path. Nibbāna is eternal freedom from dukkha, samsāra and rebirth. It is not a state of heaven for in the Buddhist world-view this too is an intermittent state from which beings must eventually move on to their next existence. It is believed that nibbāna is acquired through knowing and realizing the Truth; and Buddhism lays down how its attainment becomes possible.

Keeping these features in view and after having discussed the foundational principles of Buddhist philosophy along with citing some significant early Buddhist references to the natural world carefully, my enquiry will make it adequately clear that an unconventional route must be tread. The task of a Buddhist environmental ethicist, if she is to succeed, has to be eclectic and must include the Buddhist world-view. Buddhist concepts such as the feature of uniform causality, the continuity of beings and commonality of beginnings and their bearing on nature must all be examined minutely to draw out the Buddhist impression of nature and environment. It will be seen then that the seed of a philosophy of nature was always buried in these unexpected quarters. A logical corollary to this investigation is the recognition that what truly sustains the presence of an environmental ethics in early Buddhism is its ethical doctrine embodying virtues. Of late many western environmental theories are admitting that virtues have a powerful bearing on the state of the environment and that the behaviour and attitude of human beings can, to a large extent, transform the environment. The ethics of Buddhism can be said to accept certain virtues and vices. Though these are not necessarily directed towards environmental betterment, the virtues approach is so foundational in Buddhism that it embraces every action performed in the world. Due to this the virtuous principles of non-violence, modesty and contentment can be believed to apply to the environment and have a resounding effect on the latter’s quality. Most importantly this approach considerably reduces the possibility of negative interpretations within the area of Buddhism and ecology and enhances the prospect of identifying an unambiguous environmental ethics in Buddhism substantially. This could be called an environmental virtue ethics and considered the primary Buddhist environmental position.

Questions may arise, however, about how the virtue approach to environmental ethics in Buddhism lends itself to practical issues. The virtues in Buddhism never directly address environmental problems such as water pollution or extinction of species. Virtues appear as vague guidelines for determining which path to tread. At one level I am in agreement with this charge. However at another level I find that it is the way in which this concern is expressed that makes it self-defeating. It is not always required that an environmental ethics provide specific guidelines. Rather an environmental ethics may sometimes be required to enhance and develop the process through which decisions can be made. Though this is just one environmental prospect, it is a compelling one. It suggests the possibility that by refining and altering the decision-making process, issues of practical application can be amicably resolved to an extent. Therefore it is this that this book seeks out – development of a process that is based on and modeled by the correct understanding of virtues in Buddhism. More will be said on the role of environmental virtue ethics in the practical arena in due course. Practical considerations aside, this study will not be exploring environmental beliefs and practices prevalent in Buddhist countries, barring one or two exceptions. Though an intriguing area, it is complex and problematical and beyond the scope of this book.

Literature

The legend of the Buddha dwells upon the angst of a young prince who was overwhelmed with the notions of sickness, old age and death. He chose the path of a mendicant so that he could find a solution to these impending states of anguish. After many years of intense striving, the prince found his answers. He had realized the “Truth.” He became a Buddha or an enlightened being by gaining final freedom under a Bodhi tree approximately 2,500 years ago. Though the legend is often doubted historically, there exists more confidence about the Buddha’s travels on foot through the length and breadth of northern and eastern India to spread his teachings. The Buddha is believed to have had an enormous following and to have set up monasteries even in his lifetime. His teachings survived him and developed in various different ways over the centuries. Many forms of Buddhism based on expanded notions of the teachings and espousing radically different ideas got created and started maintaining elaborate records. However there is little doubt that one of the earliest recording of the Buddha’s teaching (after a long oral tradition) can be found in what is referred to as the Pali Canon. ⁴ Most of the later forms of Buddhism reflect this fact before they develop further the word of the Buddha.

Early Buddhism generally signifies adherence to the tenets contained in the Pali Canon and its various appendages. It may refer to the art...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Acknowledgements
• Abbreviations
• 1 Towards An Environmental Ethics In Buddhism
• 2 Nature: A “Conservationist ” Analysis
• 3 Nature: A “Cosmological” Approach
• 4 Environmental Virtue Ethics In Early Buddhism
• 5 The Environmental Virtues Of Early Buddhism
• 6 Environmental Virtue Ethics in the Jatakas
• Conclusion
• Notes
• Bibliography