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The Theory of Citrasutras in Indian Painting
A Critical Re-evaluation of their Uses and Interpretations
Isabella Nardi
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eBook - ePub
The Theory of Citrasutras in Indian Painting
A Critical Re-evaluation of their Uses and Interpretations
Isabella Nardi
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About This Book
This new reading of the textual evidence has crucial consequences on how not only the citrasutras, but the whole scientific literature on the visual arts, has to be evaluated
It fills a significant gap in Indian scholarship
Despite its specialist focus, it is relevant as a guide for those studying Indian painting and Indian art in general
It should also be of interest to scholars of Sanskrit scientific literature and South Asian studies
Additionally, it should attract attention from academics in the field of Western art and Western treatises on art and want to engage in a comparative study of Western and Eastern views on art
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1
THE TEXTS, THEIR TRANSLATIONS AND INTERPRETATION
In this chapter, the citrasÅ«tras will be briefly presented together with the scholars who have interpreted and translated them. The first section will introduce the earliest citrasÅ«tras which are the Citralakį¹£aį¹a, attributed to Nagnajit, and the Viį¹£į¹udharmottara PurÄį¹a, and then it will examine later texts. Finally, the interpretations and ideas about them in the secondary literature to date will be discussed, highlighting problems and limitations of this research.
The early texts
The Citralakį¹£aį¹a of Nagnajit survives only in Tibetan, though it is originally a Sanskrit text.1 Although this research deals with Sanskrit sources, this Tibetan text is fundamental to the study of Indian citrasÅ«tras, because at some point in its history the Citralakį¹£aį¹a was translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan and it can therefore be treated as a text belonging to the Indian tradition. Today it is considered to be one of the earliest texts on the subject, together with the Viį¹£į¹udharmottara PurÄį¹a. As it is now, the Citralakį¹£aį¹a contains three chapters, though it may have been longer. This is because reference to other topics is found in Chapter 3, in particular there is mention of thirty-six types of countenances whose descriptions find no place in the text (Goswamy and Dallapiccola 1976, pp. 26ā27).
The Citralakį¹£aį¹a is ascribed to Nagnajit, whose identity is a matter of debate.2 Furthermore, the date of the Citralakį¹£aį¹a composition is unknown. Goswamy and Dallapiccola explain that:
Unfortunately, because of the Sanskrit original having been lost, it is not possible to draw any conclusions regarding dating on the evidence of language and style. All things considered, however, we feel that the work may roughly be assigned to the early Gupta period. The mythology to which references are made in the invocation and [in] the text is developed, and [is] essentially Pauranic in its framework, and this may keep us from dating it quite as early as Laufer would have us do . . . Bhattacharya, on the strength to the reference to Nagnajit in the Bį¹hat Saį¹hitÄ regards the work as having been completed by 6th century, a century that he regards as significant for the history of VÄstuvidyÄ.(1976, p. xiii)
If we consider the content of the text, which will be examined in the next chapters, we can see that there are similarities between the Citralakį¹£aį¹a of Nagnajit, the Viį¹£į¹udharmottara PurÄį¹a and the Bį¹hat Saį¹hitÄ (AD c.550)3 so that we can accept the date of the text as āearly Gupta periodā and assume that Nagnajit was the author mentioned by VarÄhamihira in the Bį¹hat Saį¹hitÄ.
The first Western scholar who dealt with the Citralakį¹£aį¹a was Berthold Laufer in 1913, who edited and translated it from Tibetan into German. The German translation was subsequently translated into English by Goswamy and Dallapiccola in 1976, with the title An Early Document of Indian Art. In 1987 Asoke Chatterjee Sastri translated the same text from Tibetan into English with the title The Citralaksana: An Old Text of Indian Art. In his work he also tried to reconstruct the Sanskrit version of the text.
The Viį¹£į¹udharmottara PurÄį¹a is by far the most translated and interpreted of all the available texts on painting.4 The date of the Viį¹£į¹udharmottara PurÄį¹a is widely contested,5 but considering the affinity of content between the Citralakį¹£aį¹a of Nagnajit and the Bį¹hat Saį¹hitÄ, the Viį¹£į¹udharmottara PurÄį¹a may also belong to the Gupta period (AD 450ā650).
The Viį¹£į¹udharmottara PurÄį¹a was known up to the Akbar period. Dave (1991, pp. 52, 58) argues that the oldest of the manuscripts used in her work is on birch bark whose use came to an end from Akbarās time. The manuscript used by her can be dated to approximately the late sixteenth century and we can say that the Viį¹£į¹udharmottara PurÄį¹a was transmitted in written form up to this date. This fundamental point exemplifies that a text cannot be seen as belonging to a defined period of time or to a particular school of painting but rather as being continuously handed down to posterity because it is considered as a valid source of traditional knowledge.
The entire text of the Viį¹£į¹udharmottara PurÄį¹a contains various topics and it is divided into three parts, the section called citrasÅ«tra includes chapters 35ā43 in the third part of the text. Its first edition was published by the Venkatesvara Press in 1912 in Sanskrit. It is on the basis of the Venkatesvara edition that Stella Kramrisch published in 1924 the first English version of the text entitled The Visnudharmottaram (Part III): A Treatise on Indian Painting. After this translation there is Priyabala Shahās edition of the text in 1958 entitled Visnudharmottarapurana Third Khanda in which she adds more manuscripts to the Venkatesvara edition. This edition was followed in 1978 by Sivaramamurtiās Citrasutra of the Visnudharmottara, in which he translates the text improved by Shah offering a new interpretation of it. The best study carried on so far is Parul Dave Mukherjiās The Citrasutra of the Visnudharmottara Purana (2001) in which in addition to the manuscripts used by Shah in her critical edition two more manuscripts from Nepal and Bangladesh are used to eliminate some problems affecting the understanding of the older editions.
Later texts
Other important texts that contain a citrasÅ«tra section, and provide a wide range of interesting views on art and painting, are the SamarÄį¹
gaį¹a SÅ«tradhÄra of King Bhoja of DhÄrÄ dated to c.1000ā1050, the AparÄjitapį¹cchÄ ascribed to Bhuvanadeva dated to twelfth century, the Abhilaį¹£itÄrthacintÄmaį¹i and MÄnasollasÄ of King SomeÅvaradeva also dated to c. twelfth century and the Åilparatna by ÅrÄ« KumÄra of Kerala dated to the middle of the sixteenth century. All these texts are characteristically encyclopaedic, dealing with a wide range of topics from astrology to architecture, medicine, geography and gemology.
The SamarÄį¹
gaį¹a SÅ«tradhÄra is believed to have been written by (or at least for) King Bhoja of DhÄrÄ who was a patron of the arts and a great writer. This king was also the writer of other kinds of treatises like the Åį¹į¹
gÄraprakÄÅa on poetics. He was a great theorist and his views on rÄsa expounded in the SamarÄį¹
gaį¹a SÅ«tradhÄra are revolutionary with respect to the traditional views on the subject.
The first Sanskrit edition of the SamarÄį¹
gaį¹a SÅ«tradhÄra was published in 1925 by Ganapati Sastri. The original manuscripts of the SamarÄį¹
gaį¹a SÅ«tradhÄra are in a poor condition which does not easily permit making a good collated edition and translation of the work. This is especially true for the parts relating to painting and iconography in chapters 71ā83. According to Bhattacharya (1976, pp. 11ā13), the edition of 1925 was prepared on the basis of three manuscripts, of which only one, belonging to the Central Library of Baroda, contains the chapters relating to painting and iconography.
The AparÄjitapį¹cchÄ ascribed to Bhuvanadeva is a Åilpa text traditionally associated with the nÄgara school of architecture and may be dated to around the twelfth century. The text incorporates all the arts including architecture, sculpture, painting and music. The first edition of the text was published in 1950 by Popatbhai Ambasankar Mankad. This edition was followed in 1987 by Dubeyās Aparajitaprccha ā A Critical Study, which involves a commentary and translation of portions of the text, but the section dedicated to painting is not comprehensive, nor does it show much evidence of scholarly critical research. Dubey (1987, pp. 3ā4) states that the AparÄjitapį¹cchÄ is more than a century later than the SamarÄį¹
gaį¹a SÅ«tradhÄra. There are a number of similarities and parallels in the texts, but the key point is that the subjects acquired from the SamarÄį¹
gaį¹a SÅ«tradhÄra have been elaborated and amplified by the AparÄjitapį¹cchÄ rather than examined anew. The AparÄjitapį¹cchÄ, which literally means āthe questions of AparÄjitaā, is primarily an exposition of principles of the science of vÄstu by ViÅvakarman, who solved a series of questions put to him by AparÄjita, one of his mind-begotten sons (Dubey 1987, p. 7).
The Abhilaį¹£itÄrthacintÄmaį¹i and MÄnasollasÄ have been attributed to King SomeÅvaradeva of the Western CÄlukya dynasty, who ruled around AD 1127ā1138. The Abhilaį¹£itÄrthacintÄmaį¹i was published in Sanskrit, with an English introduction in 1926 by Shama Sastry. In 1939 G.K. Shrigondekar published the MÄnasollasÄ. These two texts contain five sections, each of which is divided into twenty chapters dealing with all the branches of knowledge. The sections explaining painting are the third prakaraį¹a of the Abhilaį¹£itÄrthacintÄmaį¹i and the third viį¹Åati of the MÄnasollasÄ. Although they have two different titles, the parts dedicated to painting of each text are believed to be identical and included in the upabhoga- viį¹Åati or āthe section on enjoymentsā.
The Åilparatna is a text written by ÅrÄ« KumÄra, under the patronage of King DevanÄrÄyaį¹a, who ruled in Travancore in the later part of the sixteenth century. ÅrÄ« KumÄra was a brahman, son of ÅrÄ« RÄma born in the lineage of Bhargava. The Åilparatna is divided into two parts, the first of which has 46 chapters and the second with 35 chapters. The section that we call Citralakį¹£aį¹a is chapter 46 of the first part. The first part of the text was edited in 1922 by Ganapati Sastri. A few years later (1926ā1928) Coomaraswamy attempted the first translation of the Citralakį¹£aį¹a of the Åilparatna which was not very successful for our understanding of the text. In 1974 Asok K. Bhattacharya published a translation of the same chapter, with a commentary that claims to prove that Kerala artists used the text as a guide.
The aforementioned texts are considered, in secondary literature, the main citrasÅ«tras. They are discussed in the main works on the subject such as Shukla (1957), Bhattacharya (1976) and Chakrabarti (1980). Together with those texts, there is another group of Åilpa ÅÄstras associated with the theory of painting. These texts deal with topics related to painting or mention painting itself and will be used in this study to strengthen our views. Among them are: NÄrada Åilpa ÅÄstra (especially chapters 66 and 71), Åivatattva RatnÄkara, MÄnasÄra, Mayamata, Matsya PurÄį¹a, VarÄhamihiraās Bį¹hat Saį¹hitÄ, NÄį¹ya ÅÄstra of Bharata, DevatÄmÅ«rtiprakaraį¹a of Maį¹įøana SÅ«tradhÄra, VÄstusÅ«tra Upaniį¹£ad ascribed to sage PippalÄda, CitrakarmaÅÄstra ascribed to MaƱjuÅrÄ«, PratimÄmÄnalakį¹£aį¹a, ÅukranÄ«ti and the SudhÄlepavidhÄna.6 These texts are equally important to our understanding of the theory of painting, but their significance has been underestimated by many scholars. In this study, all these sources will be used to clarify some important concepts.