Textile Design

Products and Processes

Michael Hann

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2020
• Print ISBN: 9780367313067
• eBook ISBN: 9781000214062
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Tecnologia e ingegneria
• Subtopic: Design industriale

This book includes fundamentals of textile processing technology with explanation of craft techniques, various stages of processing fibres and yarns with useful, readily understandable, line drawings. Fibrous types, dyes, yarns and cloths have been explained and material is supported by glossary and explanation of processing stages from fibre to finished cloth. Further, the considerations of relevance to the development and preparation of a design collection are outlined and discussed. Various testing procedures, including fibre, yarn and cloth identification methods, and important innovations in textile products and processing are identified and explained as well. Focused mainly on the needs of students specializing in textile or fashion design, at first year undergraduate university level, this book:

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• Covers all stages from fibre to finished cloth.

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• Discusses various stages of processing fibres and yarns.

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• Explains fibrous types, dyes, yarns and cloths supported by relevant glossary.

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• Presents explanations of both tactile and aesthetic aspects of textiles used in clothing.

1  Introduction

The purpose of this book is to identify the raw materials and the more important products and processes of relevance to the design and manufacture of textiles. The aim is to capture the essence of subject areas of importance to textile and fashion designers and others who are not so much concerned with the engineering and scientific aspects of the subject but rather need to develop a general awareness of fibres, yarns and cloths, their properties and how they are processed. Largely, the order of chapters follows the chronological stages of processing from fibrous raw materials to finished cloth and its testing.

Textile traditions are numerous worldwide, and it appears that most cultures developed their own unique means and approaches to the processing of fibres. All approaches cannot be identified and explained in this present book. Rather, the intention is to underline the possibility of great diversity in practice, and to suggest that invariably there will be numerous means of achieving one aim. In the industrial context, which is the principal focus here, the emphasis is on fewer rudimentary procedures, less labour intensity and a higher degree of mechanisation than was traditionally the case.

Chapter 2 identifies the various fibre types available to designers and highlights the properties and possible end uses of each. It should be recognised that often in popular usage the term ‘wool’ is used to refer to a wide range of fibres in addition to those sourced from domesticated sheep, especially mohair and cashmere. In the context of this book, however, the term ‘specialty hair fibres’ (a term found commonly in textile textbooks) is used instead to refer to all animal fibres mentioned here other than fibres sourced from domesticated sheep and silkworms. Meanwhile the term ‘wool’ is reserved only for fibres from domesticated sheep. Chapter 3 outlines the various means and stages of creating a twisted fibrous structure known as a yarn. Occasionally, the term ‘thread’ is found in various texts to refer to two or more yarns twisted together into one structure, and at other times, the term is used interchangeably with the term ‘yarn’. At this stage, it is worth noting that in this present book the term ‘yarn’ will be used throughout, even where a twisted structure, such as a fancy yarn, for example, has more than one component part. Chapter 4 is focused on providing an explanation of weaving, the principal means of creating a textile through the interlacement of yarns, and chapter 5 on explaining knitting and other manipulation techniques of relevance to textiles and their embellishment. In all cases the term ‘cloth’ is employed, rather than fabric, to refer to the textile produced by either weaving or knitting, or any other technique. It is believed that the term ‘fabric’ should be reserved for use only when the cloth has been fully finished and is ready for immediate application to an anticipated end use. Chapter 6 presents an outline of the nature of felted and bark cloths and some other textiles often referred to collectively as nonwovens. Chapter 7 is concerned with colouration using dyestuffs; the main dyes and associated techniques are identified also. Chapter 8 identifies various block-printing and other techniques where dyestuffs are removed, resisted or encouraged to adhere to areas of the cloth or yarn. Chapter 9 outlines the nature of a selection of techniques used to finish textiles in order to make them perform better in their intended end use. Chapter 10 identifies a range of motifs and regular patterns. Chapter 11 considers aspects of the preparation of a collection of textile designs. Chapter 12 outlines various tests used in the appraisal of textiles and chapter 13 identifies relatively recent technological innovations and environmental concerns associated with textile manufacture. Concluding comments are presented in chapter 14.

The importance of scientific and technological enquiry in modern times to the discovery and development of fibre types and further understanding of known fibre types should be mentioned in this book, for without such enquiry (initially into natural fibre forms) an understanding of the requirements of manufactured fibres and how to process them would never have been achieved. What appears certain is that forming the basis of every major fibre discovery or processing breakthrough was extensive background enquiry. In the early- to mid-twentieth century, numerous educational institutions worldwide laid the basis among individuals for future discovery and invention. Formal research organisations played an important role, as did the large textile-machinery manufacturers and multinational fibre-producing companies together with various international professional associations. In the context of textiles, probably the most important technological developments in the late-twentieth and early-twenty-first centuries were the introduction of microfibres and nanofibres (both fine fibres with the latter even finer than the former), the introduction of high-performance fibres (including aramid fibres such as Du Pont’s Kevlar) and the wide spread adoption of environmentally friendly fibres (such as lyocell). Also of importance was the use of known fibres in composites (larger structures where, often, fibres were included because of their favourable properties, especially their ratio of strength to weight), the introduction of autolevelling to ensure more regular yarns, the incorporation of electronic features into textiles, the massive expansion in applications for nonwoven varieties of textiles and developments relating to plasma finishing and digital printing. All of these had far-reaching implications for the textile industry in general. Of great importance also was the adoption of digital forms of control throughout the processing sequence, leading to less labour associated with textile manufacture and the automatic transfer between stages of manufacture.

Important industrial changes included the migration of textile and clothing manufacture away from centres in Europe to China and other parts of Asia, particularly in the wake of what became known as fast fashion. Meanwhile textile-manufacturing activities in the USA were largely retained. Major concerns, in the early-twenty-first century, globally, particularly in the more economically developed regions, were ethical manufacture (circumstances where the adult workforce was paid a reasonable wage, over a reasonable number of hours, in safe and clean working conditions), sustainability (a term used to indicate the use of raw materials not detrimental to the environment in the long term) and durability (where a product was designed to function fully into the long term). An appraisal of the nature of durability was given by Annis (2012) and a detailed review of associated issues as they related to textile manufacture was provided by Muthu (2017). By the end of the second decade of the twenty-first century, it was readily apparent that recycling (a term used to refer to the re-claiming and further processing of constituent fibres, yarns or cloths after their use for another purpose), upcycling (a term used to refer to the repair and probable re-design of a textile in order to extend its useful life) and ethical manufacture had captured the consciousness of the buying public. It was believed that recycling and upcycling could contribute positively to sustainability. Manufacturers and retailers were keen, therefore, to become associated with these developments as it was believed that this would enhance their profitability. There appeared to be a rush towards dissociation from any form of manufacture which could be deemed to be unethical, unsustainable or non-durable. Despite this, the environment continued to deteriorate and the overall contribution of textile processing and related manufacture to this deterioration seemed to have continued. Radical legislative approaches from governments were largely absent and a refocusing of the entire textile and related industries on the use of more sustainable means of manufacture had not occurred by the beginning of the third decade of the twenty-first century. At the time of manuscript submission, in early summer of 2020, the Covid-19 virus had advanced significantly worldwide, with substantial loss of life and the decimation of most national economies. It may be the case that between this submission and the time when the virus is finally dispelled, industrialists and policy makers will take time to reflect on how best to re-start their economies. In the textile context, for example, it may be worth considering and implementing some of the suggestions in publications such as Circular Economy in the Textile Sector, commissioned by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Co-operation and Development (BMZ) (Markschläger and Edele, 2019). This publication calls for fundamental changes in the way textile products are designed.

A brief explanation of the spelling conventions used in this book should be given. There is much variation throughout textile textbooks in the use of upper-case or lower-case letters, particularly with words such as ‘Jacquard’, ‘Milano’ and ‘Roma’. In this present book, upper-case letters will preface both place names and personal names. Words such as Paisley and Jacquard will be spelt using upper-case P and J, respectively. In addition, because of the association of this book with the Textile Institute and its international headquarters in Manchester, British spellings (e.g. of terms such as ‘fibre’, ‘labour’ and ‘colour’) are maintained throughout.

References

1. Annis, P. (ed.) (2012), Understanding and Improving the Durability of Textiles, Cambridge, UK: Woodhead.
2. Markschläger, F., and A. Edele (eds.) (2019), Circular Economy in the Textile Sector, Bonn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH.
3. Muthu, S. (2017), Sustainable Fibres and Textiles, Cambridge, UK: Woodhead.

2 Textile fibres

2.1 Introduction

Fibres used in textile manufacture can be classified as natural or manufactured fibres. Further sub-categories are also common. Natural fibres are of vegetable, animal or mineral origin. All vegetable fibres are considered cellulosic (although each vegetable fibre type holds a differing proportion of cellulose). Among these are bast fibres (such as flax, or other fibres obtained from within the stems of plants or trees), leaf fibres (such as sisal) and seed fibres (such as cotton). The characteristics of each of the three types of vegetable fibre are outlined in section 2.2.

Numerous natural sources provide fibrous matter of one kind or another. Fibres used in the manufacture of textiles require a range of structural properties. They need to be like flexible rods, without branches and with a significantly longer length than the cross-sectional width. Textile fibres (referred to simply as fibres in the subsequent sections) may be classed by reference to their origin; some, like those mentioned in the paragraph above, are naturally occurring and are known as natural fibres, some are reconstituted from natural sources and are known as regenerated fibres and some, manufactured from assemblies of chemicals, are known mainly as synthetic fibres. The term ‘manufactured fibres’ (rather than man-made fibres) will be used in this present book to refer collectively to regenerated and synthetic fibres.

No matter which application may be envisaged, raw-material selections are critical as these must not only have the desired properties but also be suited to available means of processing. Considering that raw-material costs are a substantial proportion of the total costs of production, the necessity to ensure that suitable fibrous materials are selected seems paramount. For those working in textiles, be it in manufacture, design, display or analysis, constituent fibres are a fundamental aspect. Although underlying arrangements of fibres and cloth construction, as well as applied finishes, are of crucial importance, it is the constituent fibre type which will have the paramount influence on the performance of the finished textile. Therefore, it is necessary often to identify constituent fibre content of cloths, maybe through microscopic examination or by burning, staining or solubility tests.

In the spinning of manufactured fibres in continuous-filament form one of several general systems has been used. Basically, fibres may be obtained through melting or dissolving constituents in a solution, with the former known as melt spinning and the latter, occasionally, as wet spinning (though there are various further classifications possible) (Figures 2.1 and 2.2). In each case, the fluid is extruded through a thimble-like device (with numerous holes), known as a spinneret. Once filaments have been formed, these are stretched or drawn out to improve their inherent physical properties. Resultant fibres may also be texturised using heat to impart coils or crimps along their length, thus increasing their bulk. The process can influence various performance characteristics of resultant yarns and cloths with improvements to degrees of elasticity and handle, as well as heat retention. Hearle, Hollick and Wilson (2001) provided a substantial review of yarn texturising technologies and products.

FIGURE 2.1 Melt spinning (A) with either continuous-filament processing (B) or staple-fibre processing (C). Re-drawn by JW.

FIGURE 2.2 Wet spinning (viscose), A = spinneret. Re-drawn by JW.

Commonly, with fibres such as lyocell (where a technique known as solvent spinning is used), the bulk of solvent is re-claimed and returned to the process. All categories of manufactured fibres can undergo further processing in continuous-filament form or, alternatively, can be chopped into staple form prior to further processing.

The objectives of this present chapter are therefore to identify and discuss briefly the most common natural fibres (from both plant and animal sources) and manufactured fibres (as noted previously, this is a collective term used here to refer to regenerated fibres and synthetic fibres). It should also be mentioned that various other...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half-Title
• Series
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Series preface
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• Author
• Reference sources for illustrative material
• Chapter 1 Introduction
• Chapter 2 Textile fibres
• Chapter 3 Yarns
• Chapter 4 Weaving
• Chapter 5 Knitting and other forms of yarn manipulation
• Chapter 6 Felt, bark and other nonwovens
• Chapter 7 Dyes and their application
• Chapter 8 Block-printing and resist-dyeing techniques
• Chapter 9 Finishing
• Chapter 10 Motifs and patterns
• Chapter 11 Design development and presentation
• Chapter 12 Testing and appraisal
• Chapter 13 Further considerations
• Chapter 14 Conclusion
• Glossary
• Index