A Pocket Essential Short Introduction to Religion

Gordon Kerr

• Publisher: Oldcastle Books
• Year: 2019
• Print ISBN: 9780857301703
• eBook ISBN: 9780857301710
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Hinduism

During this time of conflict and suspicion, it is perhaps more important than ever to understand the beliefs and philosophies of other cultures. A Short History of Religion provides a useful guide to the world's most popular religions – Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Judaism and Hinduism – describing their origins and history, beliefs, worship and sacred writings, but also investigates many of the smaller and lesser known religions as well as newer movements such as Scientology, Wicca and Raëlism.

1

Ancient Egypt

‘Man, know thyself, and you are going to know the Gods.’

Inscription from Luxor Temple, Egypt

The Religion of Ancient Egypt

The fabulous Ancient Egyptian civilisation existed in the lower reaches of the Nile Valley from about 3100 BC until 30 BC, when it became a province of the Roman Empire under Octavian, the future Emperor Augustus (r. 27 BC-14 AD). It is defined by several important periods – the Old Kingdom (c. 2700-2200 BC), the time of powerful pharaohs who left a legacy of mighty pyramids; the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000-1800 BC), also dubbed the Period of Reunification; and the New Kingdom (c. 1550-1225 BC), a time when Egypt was a pre-eminent power in the region. At other times, outside these periods of strength, Egypt was plagued with internal fighting, weak rulers or suffered foreign occupation. During these times, religious customs and beliefs changed, but because there are so many consistencies, it is still possible to discuss what can be termed ‘the religion of Egypt’.

Early Egyptian religion can only be explained by referring to objects that have been found before writing first appeared in around 3100 BC. These objects – items such as amulets – are concerned most often with hunting or fertility. There are earthenware figurines of naked women which undoubtedly were about fertility and the aspiration to have many children. Elephant tusk pendants that have been found were probably worn to provide protection for the hunter and guarantee him a successful hunt. Religious rituals are hinted at in pictures painted on pots or scratched on rocks but it is impossible to say precisely what they mean.

Egyptian gods are a bizarre collection of half-animal, half-human entities, many of them representing elements of the natural world. It is understandable that Egyptians should embrace the natural world for its deities as the country depended on natural phenomena for survival, and the annual flooding of the River Nile was vitally important. It was this that made the land fertile and enabled Egyptian farmers to grow crops. Such important gods needed to be placated with worship and sacrifice and they were often depicted as animals or birds. The sun god, for instance, was represented by a hawk and the cobra, symbolized Renenutet, the goddess of the harvest.

Cities, too, had deities associated with them. When Thebes was the capital of Egypt during the New Kingdom, for instance, its god, Amun, became a deity who protected the entire nation. But local gods were worshipped in other towns and people would also worship deities that were important to them, such as ones relevant to their profession. A writer, might, for example, worship Thoth, the deity associated with scribes. The pharaoh could himself be a god and so could outstanding individuals.

There is also believed to have been a single deity who is unnamed but who controlled the universe and maintained the balance between good and evil. In fact, in the 25 years between 1375 BC and 1350 BC, the pharaoh Amenhotep IV (r. 1353-1336 BC or 1351-1334 BC), a man whose sanity has sometimes been questioned, although others have described him as a visionary, promoted the worship of one god, Aten – the sun’s disc. During his reign, worship of other gods was forbidden. Aten came to be regarded as the source of all life and this power was passed to the king who changed his name to Akhenaten (translated as ‘the one who is beneficial to the Aten’). Whether this move was religious or political, we do not know. Amenhotep may simply have been trying to bring some unity and stability to a nation in turmoil. Whatever the reason, the reform was not well received and the status quo was restored shortly after his death.

Animals were often deified. Sometimes it would be an entire species and great numbers of baboons, crocodiles, ibises and cats and dogs were mummified and buried. But an individual animal could also be deified. The creature would lead a wonderful life before being mummified and ritually buried on its death.

Daily Worship in Ancient Egypt

Gods were treated like humans in Ancient Egyptian ritual. They were wakened in the morning with a choir as part of a morning ritual, and the god’s night clothing was removed from its image. It was then washed, dressed, fed and given something to drink – the food and drink taking the form of offerings. The day continued with the god – or, rather, the image of the god – receiving visitors, being involved in prophesies or other duties. These, of course, were interpreted and delivered by priests which gave these men a considerable amount of power and influence. Offerings of sustenance would be made to the god during the day and he would be put to bed in his shrine at night. These images have not survived but we surmise they were made of stone or precious metal, and, one presumes, given the level of worship, would have been adorned with elaborate ornamentation.

Festivals were also part of the life of a god and his worshippers, some consisting of a mere offering or a ritual or procession in the temple. Others involved lengthy voyages on the Nile, perhaps to visit another god’s temple. These longer festivals were holidays for the Egyptians. As the god’s shrine floated past on his barge, worshippers, who sometimes travelled considerable distances to be there, would line the river banks, cheering. One document estimates a crowd of around 700,000 pilgrims gathered for one festival. The ornate shrine could not be seen by worshippers as it was carried by a number of bearers on a boat-shaped platform. In the river festivals, the shrine would travel on a vessel made of wood, specially constructed to look very much like the reed boats from the periods when such festivals probably originated.

After originating in duties performed by local dignitaries, the priesthood evolved into a professional body and occasionally, when a weak pharaoh occupied the throne, the high priest of one of the main Egyptian gods was de facto ruler. There was a hierarchy of religious officials, and women could serve as priestesses.

Mythology, Stories and The Book of the Dead

There was no main holy book in Egyptian religion and very few stories of the gods have survived. Some fragments have been assembled into what might be complete stories but we have no way of knowing if these are correct. The Ancient Egyptians appear to have believed the universe was originally filled with water from which a hill emerged that supported life. This, of course, relates to their own existence and the annual subsiding of the life-giving Nile flood waters. The gods emerged from this hill, they believed, and created other gods. Prayers and hymns were written and there were books of wisdom, the contents of which ranged from everyday advice to moral principles and ponderings on the nature of life. They contained guidance, too, on how to live a pious life and, thereby, to please the gods as well as gain the good opinion of other people, thus guaranteeing safe passage to the afterlife. Many images of the time depict the heart of a deceased person being weighed against a feather, the result of which was recorded by the scribe of the gods, Thoth. Osiris was always shown to be present at this ceremony. To be found wanting at this stage meant eternal destruction.

The afterworld was important to Ancient Egyptians, as is evident from the food and other items left in tombs from an early date. Later, the images used to decorate tomb walls depict how the Egyptians perceived the afterlife. It reflected this world but in it everything was much better, with bountiful harvests, pretty girls and sumptuous banquets. It did evolve, however. The king was originally believed to spend his time after death with the sun god Ra as he travelled across the sky on his daily journey, but, later, deceased kings began to be associated with Osiris who became the god of the afterlife, the underworld and the dead. As time passed, the association with Osiris spread to include not just the king but all classes of people.

The journey to the afterworld was an arduous and dangerous one, and the spirit of the deceased encountered all kinds of obstacles and demons en route. Reciting incantations from a roll of papyrus defeated these enemies, allowing the dead person to pass unhindered. These books, or rolls of papyrus are sometimes called The Book of the Dead although other names exist. Copies were deposited in the tomb for the use of the dead person and sometimes the incantations were inscribed inside the coffin or on the walls of the tomb itself.

Mummification was practised because the Ancient Egyptians believed that the spirit still needed the physical body after death. In cases where the body was not available, if the person had been lost at sea or perished in a fire, for instance, a statue of the dead person or even a painting would be sufficient. The funeral ceremony itself consisted of a ritual named ‘The Opening of the Mouth’. The mouth and other bodily orifices were treated in such a way that they remained open so that the deceased might be able to eat as well as see and hear and perform other bodily functions after death.

2

Zoroastrianism

‘Truth is best (of all that is) good. As desired, what is being desired is truth for him who (represents) the best truth.’

Zoroaster, Gathas 27.14

Zoroaster

Zoroastrians follow the teachings of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster who is also known as Zarathustra. He most likely lived in the second millennium BC, although some scholars place him a little later, in the seventh and sixth centuries BC, perhaps around the time of Cyrus the Great (r. 559-530 BC) and Darius I (r. 522-486 BC), emperors of the Achaemenid Empire. His birthplace is unknown but he is said to have started training for the priesthood at the age of seven, graduating at fifteen. Aged twenty, he left home and travelled, but ten years later, at a spring festival, he experienced a revelation, in the form of a shining being on a riverbank. The being announced himself to be Vohu Manah (Good Purpose, Good Mind or Good Thought). He taught Zoroaster about Ahura Mazda (Good Spirit) and five other radiant figures and Zoroaster became aware of two primal Spirits. The second of these was Angra Mainyu (Hostile Spirit) which had two opposing concepts – Asha (Truth, or Righteousness) and Druj (lie). More revelations followed, including a vision of the seven Amesha Spenta – divine entities. His teachings were collected in the Gathas and the Avesta.

Zoroaster was vehemently opposed to the oppressive class system in Persia which put him at odds with the authorities. His teachings, therefore, were initially rejected and he was forced to leave his home. According to those who believe in the later date for Zoroaster’s life, when he was 42 years old, he found a patron, in Queen Hutaosa (550-475 BC) and a ruler, Vishtaspa (dates unknown, although he is presumed to be an historical figure), who had adopted Zoroaster’s teachings at an early date. Zoroastrianism became the official religion of his small kingdom in northeast Persia, although its exact location is not known.

Zoroaster lived for many more years, establishing a faithful following. He married three times, had three sons and three daughters and died at the age of seventy-seven. Stories about his death vary, one saying that he died in a conflict with the Turan people of Persia, another suggesting that he was murdered by Bradres, a priest of the old religion. Following his death, his religion spread throughout Persia, eventually becoming the Persian Empire’s officially sanctioned religion.

The Teaching of Zoroaster

Believers in Zoroastrianism consider their prophet to have been chosen by God to receive his unique revelation which is to be found in the Gathas, a collection of 17 hymns. The hymn form was chosen to transmit these ideas because it made it easier to commit the words to memory at a time when writing was not known and these hymns now form part of the Yasna, the principal act of worship in Zoroastrianism.

What distinguishes Zoroaster’s teaching from others is his belief in the importance of personal religion, a notion that probably derives from ...

Table of contents

• Introduction
• Prehistory
• Religions of Antiquity
• 1
• 2
• 3
• 4
• 5
• 6
• 7
• 8
• Religions of India
• 9
• 10
• 11
• 12
• Religions of the East
• 13
• 14
• Abrahamic Religions
• 15
• 16
• 17
• Independent Belief Systems
• New Religious Movements
• Bibliography
• About the author
• Copyright