Chapter 1
The anti-missile demonstrations
The protests and their context
In a particular patch of land in Mutlangen, a small town near Stuttgart Germany, a casual visitor would find little out of the ordinary now. On an autumn evening not too long ago, a lone power shovel stood in the fields and two large bunkers, covered over with earth and grass, lay empty or had been converted to serve modest ends. One of the bunkers, for example, provided shelter for a flock of sheep and acted as a storage bin for bales of straw. On that cool autumn evening, the purple outline of the âSwabian Albââthe high Swabian plateauâwas visible against the sky.
It was a peaceful moment, and for a visitor it was difficult to imagine that, just a few years earlier, this quiet field contained the main repository of deadly Pershing II nuclear missiles in Germany and that, as a result, it was the scene of almost continuous protests by members of the German peace movement. In most cases, these demonstrations at Mutlangen were limited to a handful of protestorsânormally less than a hundred participants at a time, engaging in a quiet form of civil disobedience. But, on occasion, crowds of demonstrators swelled to several thousands, blocking truck and tank traffic traveling up the main road to the Pershing missile base.
Little evidence of this tumultuous history remained in those tranquil fields by the end of the 1990s. Yet considerable commotion of a different sort was evident upon a return visit shortly thereafter; builders were constructing large suburban houses and quaint winding roads on a large tract of adjacent fieldâthe historic Mutlangen Meadow (Mutlanger Heide)âand this development threatened to expand into the territory of the former missile base itself. Perhaps the people of Mutlangen were happy enough to erase some last traces of their townâs conspicuous role in the history of the Cold War.
Not too many miles awayâon the high Swabian plateau itselfâthe village of GroĂengstingen (Big Engstingen) lies amid an idyllic setting of forests and fields. (The even tinier village of KleinengstingenâLittle Engstingenânestles on a slope nearby.) On the hillside above GroĂengstingen, a narrow road leads through pine forests into a deserted complex of concrete buildings. On a spring day in 2000, a visitor to this quiet spot could hear little more than the call of birds; massive white clouds drifted across a pale blue sky.
The deserted complex was an odd sight with its watch-towers looming over two empty bunkersâonce repositories of Lance short-range nuclear missiles, but now (it is said) the home of nocturnal bats. The traces of previous military habitation were few: a large blue board with hooks for perhaps 40 keysâcarefully labeled, but now completely emptyâlay abandoned on the ground. On a metal shelf, an American soldier had used a felt-tipped pen to write an obscene note to the Soviet troops who he thought might be coming one day. At the inner gate of the base, someone had erected a large hand-painted sign that proclaimed: âMemorial Site: Battlefield of the Cold War, 1945-1991.â
The outer gate of the complex, at the foot of the hill at GroĂengstingen, was also the scene of dramatic sit-down demonstrations, leading to hundreds of arrests. The demonstrations at GroĂengstingen were in general earlier than those in Mutlangen. Indeed, these protests were among the first sit-down demonstrations in Germany against NATO nuclear missiles.
The sit-down blockades and the âdouble-trackâ decision
Protesting the Lance missilesâGroĂengstingen
The demonstrations against the Lance missiles at GroĂengstingen began with a small blockade in July 1981, in which 13 protestors chained themselves to the entrance of a nearby German army barracks.1 Following this modest beginning, the protests in GroĂengstingen reached their high point in the summer of 1982 with a series of demonstrations that extended over an entire week and involved approximately 700 participants, who had come from several parts of Germany and abroad. Because accommodation was scarce in this somewhat remote rural area, organizers of the week-long protest established five âTent Villagesâ in fields borrowed from local farmers, and they arranged with the fire departments from surrounding towns to keep the âvillagesâ supplied with water.
The organization of the 1982 Tent Village protests involved considerable complexity.2 The hundreds of demonstrators were organized on the basis of so-called âaffinity groupsâ (Bezugsgruppen)âclosely knit associations of up to 15 protestors, typically drawn together by friendship or common political views. Bearing fancifulâbut pointedânames such as Termite, Nettle, and Grain of Sand,3 approximately 50 âaffinity groupsâ formed the basic units of the 1982 Tent Village demonstrations.
Typically, the blockades of the Tent Village protestors followed rotations of six-hour shifts. During each six-hour period, three affinity groups sat before the gates of the Lance missile baseâsupported by back-up groups in case the police cleared the area by arresting demonstrators and carrying them away. The demonstrators were generally cleared twice a dayâwhen provisions for the base, or soldiers relieving those on duty, were transported into the compound. All in all, at least 400 protestors were arrested during the week of the Tent Villages in the summer of 1982.4
In this protest, and in many later anti-missile protests, strict non-violence was an absolute requirement. Before the demonstrations began, the protestors participated in joint âtrainingsââthis supposed English plural was taken over directly into Germanâin the theory and practice of non-violence. Indeed, participation in a weekend training session was a requirement for participation in the Tent Village demonstrations.
In these and later âtrainings,â the central purpose was to help protestors internalize the principles of non-violence, so that their resistance would remain passive even if they were confronted with the violent acts of others. In the trainings, for example, participants were sometimes divided into two groups for the purposes of playing the roles of protestors and âpolice officers.â They were then required to confront each other at close quarters in order to simulate and understand the tensions that each side might face in a real confrontation. In this way the organizers sought to ensure that this large demonstration of hundreds of protestors would remain non-violent even in the face of provocations.5
The âtrainingsâ in non-violence, and the use of affinity groups, were influenced by similar preparations for American demonstrations against planned atomic power plants at Seabrook New Hampshire in 1979 and Diablo Canyon California in 1981.6 Of course, the practice of training participants in non-violence goes back to the American civil rights movement of the 1950s,7 and to the passive resistance organized by Mahatma Gandhi decades earlier; moreover, it is said that the idea of affinity groups originated in Republican military units in the Spanish Civil War.8 Yet the immediate inspiration for these methods of organization was the massive protests against nuclear power plants in the United States and Germany, and this is only one of the several ways in which the anti-missile protests were influenced by these slightly earlier environmental demonstrations.9
In the German protests the affinity groups played a particularly important role, and they made their decisionsâfor example, whether or not to take part in an illegal blockadeâbased on the principle of unanimity. The affinity groups were particularly crucial because they offered individual protestors an intimate and reliable refuge within a huge and otherwise anonymous demonstrationâwith its attendant anxiety in the face of possible injury or arrest. As the planning Handbook for the 1982 Tent Village protests put it:
In the 1982 protest at GroĂengstingen, coordination among the affinity groups was maintained through a complex system of councils linking the five Tent Villages whichâbecause of the difficulty of finding farmers willing to allow use of their landâwere located as far as 10 miles from the missile site itself.
In the course of the GroĂengstingen protests, participants often tried to engage soldiers and bystanders in conversation about the goals of the blockade. Although military personnel on duty had strict orders not to fraternize with the protestors, off-duty soldiers in street clothes would occasionally appear at the blockade to discuss the issues. Furthermore, numerous âblockade touristsââstudents, neighboring farmers, even a representative of the conservative political party, the CDUâcame around for âpa...