Cultural Astronomy of the Japanese Archipelago

Exploring the Japanese Skyscape

Akira Goto

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2020
• Print ISBN:
  9780367407988
• eBook ISBN:
  9781000221138
• Topic: Physical Sciences
• Subtopic: Astronomy & Astrophysics

Goto introduces the diverse and multilayered skylore and cultural astron- omy of the peoples of the Japanese Archipelago.

Going as far back as the Jomon, Yayoi, and Kofun periods, this book examines the significance of constellations in the daily life of farmers, fishermen, sailors, priests, and the ruling classes throughout Japan's ancient and medieval history. As well as covering the systems of the dominant Japanese people, he also explores the astronomy of the Ainu people of Hokkaido, and of the people of the Ryukyu Islands. Along the way he discusses the importance of astronomy in official rituals, mythol- ogy, and Shinto and Buddhist ceremonies.

This book provides a unique overview of cultural astronomy in Japan and is a valuable resource for researchers as well as anyone who is inter- ested in Japanese culture and history.

1 Japanese people and stars

Cultural astronomy and star lore of the Japanese

Astronomy in the Japanese Archipelago

The seasonality of subsistence activities differs between the north and south of the Japanese Archipelago (Figure 1.1). Most of the islands of Japan belong to a temperate zone that has four seasons. On the other hand, the northernmost island, Hokkaido, belongs to a cold temperate or sub-Arctic climate zone, and the southernmost islands, the Ryukyu Islands, belong to a sub-tropical zone. In astronomy, the difference in latitude defines the visibility of constellations and the use of particular constellations for season reckoning could differ by region.

Figure 1.1 Japanese Archipelago and regions referred to in this book.

The east-west extension of the archipelago has created considerable differences in the rising setting times of the sun, moon, and other constellations. For instance, the sunrise in June solstice differs approximately two hours between eastern Hokkaido and Okinawa Prefecture.

In addition, the Japanese Archipelago is home to diverse cultural traditions. In Hokkaido, there is an indigenous hunter–gatherer group, the Ainu, who have a rich star lore tradition (Sueoka 1979). Their lore is mainly based on animism and has some similarities to that of ethnic groups in northeast Asia (Sueoka 1979: 32–33) (see Chapter 3 for further discussion).

In the south, the Ryukyu Kingdom maintained independence until the beginning of the seventeenth century. Buddhism and Shintoism have scarcely influenced religious traditions of this region and the Ryukyu Islanders have maintained local shamanism until today. Their lore is built upon a mixture of Chinese, Japanese, and indigenous traditions, which likely include some Austronesian elements (Goto 2011; Nojiri 1973: 182). The Ryukyu Islanders used indigenous star charts and star books for season-reckoning and navigation (see Chapter 4 for further discussion).

In the “middle” of Japan, there is a culture with a long history influenced by China and Korea. Here, the star lore and cosmology developed based on the mixture of Buddhism, Shintoism, Confucianism, and indigenous animistic folk beliefs. This region is divided into northern Japan (e.g., Tohoku), central Japan (e.g., Kanto and Chubu), western Japan (e.g., Kansai, Chugoku, and Shikoku Island), and Kyushu Island.

As will be shown, Japanese farmers have used several stars to determine the appropriate seasons for agricultural activities, such as rice farming. An essayist of the Edo Period, Hata Kakuzan, who lived during the mid-eighteenth to mid-nineteenth centuries, wrote in his essay Yomo-no-suzuri 『四方の硯』:

Nobody observes stars better than farmers. Since Yamato County (Nara Prefecture) is poor in water, farmers, from April to summer, without sleeping, observe only stars in order to plant rice. Also, they check the moisture of rice crops by observing morning dew in order to predict its harvest. They named those stars karasuki-boshi (Chinese plow star: Orion), hishi-boshi (diamond-shape star: Cassiopeia), subaru-boshi (Pleiades), kudo-boshi, and so on. They carefully observe the time of their rising, their altitude, and setting points, and their estimates never failed.

(Kanezashi 1974: 18)

In addition, although there is only fragmentary information concerning indigenous navigation, Japanese navigation was mainly based on the yama-ate method, which means “addressing mountains.” This involves observing two mountains to locate your position in the sea. There is evidence, however, that stars were also used for navigation. In Hiyorimiyo 『和見様』, the weather forecasting book written by the pirates of Setouchi Inland Sea, the Nojima Navy 野嶋水軍 (around the sixteenth century) mentioned that the Big Dipper, Polaris, the Orion, and the Pleiades could be used for knowing direction and the weather.

In what follows, I will introduce the vernacular names of several conspicuous stars and their relevant beliefs and customs. It has been thought that Japanese people were poor observers of stars, but I will show that Japanese farmers, fishermen, and sailors had a rich custom of observing stars for their subsistence.

Star lore among Japanese populations

The Big Dipper

The Big Dipper is the most conspicuous constellation throughout the archipelago, as it is seen in many months of the year. There are several local names of the Big Dipper: kaji-boshi is one that means “a rudder star.” Here, the Big Dipper appeared to be a rudder of the ship when it lied vertically. The Big Dipper was also called funa-boshi, which means “a ship star,” signifying five stars in a square, which looked as if it was a ship.

Minamoto Yoshitsune 源義経, a famous samurai warrior in the twelfth century was written to have said, “I was lost at sea because I could not see shi-so no hoshi.” Shi-so means “four and three,” indicating four stars in the rise and three stars in the handle. This episode suggests that the Big Dipper was important to fishermen and sailors from the Medieval Period.

There was a proverb told among fishermen: shi-so-no-hosi turns around kitano-hitotsu-boshi, which literally means “One Star in the North (the Polaris),” in order to eat it. In order to protect the “One Star in the North,” yarai-boshi (yarai = fence against arrows) is turning, more closely around Polaris. Yarai-boshi corresponds to two stars: β and γ of the Little Dipper. This proverb indicates that the people on the sea paid attention to Polaris and the movement of the Big Dipper in order to know the direction and the passage of time (Nojiri 1973: 3–14).

In most parts of Japan, the Big Dipper has often been mentioned in relation to the belief in the Bodhisattva Myoken 妙見菩薩 (Arichi 2006). Myoken is a personification of the Polar Star and the Big Dipper and is called hokuto-shichisei, or “seven stars in the north.” Since the Big Dipper is going around Polaris, belief in Myoken and in Hokuto have often been merged into one. Belief in Hokuto was also important among samurai groups in the Medieval and Early Modern periods (Kanezashi 1971) (Figure 1.2).

The seven stars were perceived as seven deities in the pantheon of the Esoteric universe. According to the Buddhistic sutra that mentions the 7 stars, each of the stars was designated as the personal guardian star according to the 12 zodiac signs under which people were born. This belief was a fusion of astronomy, astrology, Esoteric Buddhism, and Chinese zodiac traditions: Donro-sho (Alkaid) signifying the rat; Komon-sho (Mizar) signifying the ox and wild boar; Rokuzon sho (Alioth) signifying the tiger and dog; Mongoku-sho (Megrez) signifying the rabbit and rooster; Renchosho (Phecda) signifying the dragon and monkey; Mugoku-sho (Merek) signifying the snake and sheep; and Hagun-sho (Dubhe) signifying the horse (Arichi 2006; Kanezashi 1974: 183) (Figure 1.3).

The last of these, Hagun-sho (or sei) 破軍星, literally means “the star to break the enemy’s forces” and was particularly important to the samurai clans in battle. They predicted outcomes by observing which direction this star was pointing. In a similar way, the Big Dipper was considered important for gamblers; it was believed that if you were betting when the Big Dipper was visible above you, you would win (Nojiri 1958: 7–10). The importance of the Big Dipper among fishermen, sailors, warriors, and gamblers may derive from the same line of magical thinking concerning the position and direction of this constellation.

Figure 1.2 Daishogun (“Great General”) Shrine 大将軍神社 in Kyoto, where Seven-Days Stars are worshiped and a charm with a seven stars design.

Figure 1.3 Hagun-sho (or sei) statue at Hoshida Myoken Temple 星田妙見神社 in Osaka.

Bootes and Corvus

Farmers of the Setouchi Inland Sea in western Japan sowed wheat when mugi-boshi (the wheat-star), Arcturus, rose in the eastern sky at dawn around November. They harvested wheat when this star sat on the western horizon at dawn around mid-May. Here, the red color of Arcturus was associated with reddish ripe wheat.

In northern Japan, Arcturus was called hato-boshi, meaning “pigeon star.” When the cold north wind ended, and late spring arrived, a big orange star appeared over the eastern mountain during the evening. This specified the season when mountain pigeons would fly down and disturb the garden (Nojiri 1973: 26–27).

In Lake Hamanako of central Japan, Arcturus was called kaji-kai boshi. The farmers changed the water in rice paddies when this star reached the mountain in the west during midnights of July. Since kaji-kai-boshi sounds like “rudder-paddle-star,” this name may have derived from fishermen who used this star for knowing the fishing season or for navigation. For instance, Arcturus was used among fishermen of the Setouchi Inland Sea to determine the appropriate season for catching shrimp octopus, goby, and crab. It was there called uojima-boshi (a fish-island star), which indicates the start of the season of abundant fish (Uchida 1973: 157–165).

Throughout Japan, the rectangular shape of Corvus was called hokake-boshi, meaning a “sail-shape star.” This name was probably used among the sailors of kitamae-bune, a north-bound ship route that transported products from Hokkaido Island to western Japan during the Edo Period (1600–1868). Since kitamae-bune was sailed frequently and by many ships, this name spread to other places as well (Nojiri 1958: 24).

Scorpio

When the rainy season ended around early July, a long chain of Scorpio rises vertically like a fire flame. In western Japan, it was called yanagi-boshi (a willow star), since it resembles a weeping willow. However, in mid-summer, Scorpio changes its position in the southern sky and looks like a fishhook. In the Setouchi Inland Sea, Scorpio was called uotsuri-boshi (a star for hooking fish) or tai-tsuri-boshi (a star fo...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• Introduction
• 1 Japanese people and stars: cultural astronomy and star lore of the Japanese
• 2 Stars in mythology and classical literature
• 3 Star lore of the Hokkaido Ainu
• 4 Ethnoastronomy in the Ryukyu Islands
• 5 Archaeoastronomy of prehistoric Japan: a historical survey
• 6 Fallen star legends in Japanese folk beliefs
• 7 Cosmology seen in house and burial orientation of the Hokkaido Ainu, northern Japan
• 8 The sun and the Kingdom of Ryukyu: an ethnohistorical approach to state formation
• 9 Epilogue
• Index