![]()
1
The Roman Empire
The last hundred years of the Roman Republic was a period of chaos and upheaval. Generals marched their troops on the city of Rome demanding power, there were civil wars and assassinations. In 31 BCE, Octavian (31 BCE–14 CE), the grandnephew and heir of Julius Caesar, defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium.1 Within a year, Antony had committed suicide, leaving Octavian as the de facto leader of the Roman state. These events are traditionally regarded as inaugurating the Roman Empire. With few exceptions, Octavian and his successors for the next two centuries oversaw a period of internal peace, economic growth, and territorial expansion. The third century, however, was one of civil war, plague, economic chaos, and invasion. The empire might have collapsed in this period without the leadership of Diocletian (284–305) and Constantine (306–37).
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
Octavian, also known as Augustus, was an excellent politician. Since the Romans had an almost fanatical suspicion of monarchy, he understood the need to keep the trappings of the Republic. Therefore, he voluntarily submitted to the senate, which, in turn, awarded him with multiple titles. All of these political offices had existed in the Republic (consul, tribune, pontifex maximus, and so on), but they were not to be held by the same person or for multiple years in a row. These powers gave Augustus authority over most of the provinces, placed him in control of the military, allowed him to veto decisions made by other magistrates, and granted him the right to decree laws. He was careful not to flaunt his power or insult the senate. He also ensured that the elites were still able to exercise some political ambition by maintaining many elected political positions.
Since the government maintained a Republican façade, succession was a problem. There was no traditional way to designate the heir of the emperor because this position had not existed. It became the custom that during the emperor’s lifetime, he would identify his successor by granting him certain powers and authority. Then, upon the emperor’s death, the senate would grant all the offices and powers to the new emperor. The first five emperors were all members of Augustus’s extended family. After the death of Nero in 68 CE, the empire did witness a brief period of civil war until Vespasian (69–79) became ruler. He was followed by his two sons, Titus (79–81) and Domitian (81–96). Next was the period of the “Five Good Emperors” (96–180). Each of these men adopted their chosen heir as an adult, ensuring that the succession fell to a capable candidate. The string of successes was broken when Marcus Aurelius (161–80) appointed his actual son, Commodus (180–92), as heir. He was not a skillful ruler and was assassinated in 192.
By 140, there were thirty-two provinces in the Roman Empire. Twenty-two of these were under the control of the emperor, who appointed the governors. The remaining ten had governors from the senatorial aristocracy. The emperors enacted policies to reform provincial administration. From the time of Augustus, governors received a salary and normally held terms of at least three years in an attempt to reduce the temptation for them to use the provinces for their personal gain. In addition, Roman citizens could appeal to the emperor if they felt their governor was excessively corrupt.
ECONOMICS AND URBAN LIFE
Provinces were important for imperial revenue. After a territory was organized as a province, a census would be taken to ascertain the population and assets of the territory. Once this was done, property and poll taxes could be imposed. There were also minimal sales taxes (approximately 1 to 1.5 percent). Roman citizens were liable for an inheritance tax that was used to fund the military. Of course, in times of crisis, the governor could assess additional taxes as needed.
The Roman Empire 218 BCE
The Roman Empire 100 BCE
The Roman Empire 44 BCE
The Roman Empire 14 CE
The Roman Empire 54 CE
The Roman Empire (largest extent) 116 CE
When Augustus came to power, he used significant amounts of his own money for public works that not only repaired cities, but also provided needed jobs. Under the empire, thousands of miles of high-quality paved roads were built. While originally designed for the military, they also led to economic growth, as empire-wide trade was much easier with excellent roads.
The city was considered the focus of Roman civilization. In the West, new towns followed the establishment of military garrisons or land being given to retired veterans. Many elites had rural villas, but they were expected to participate in civic life by holding elected offices, paying for public works and entertainment, and taking part in civic cults. A city was also a place where those from different social classes interacted in close quarters. Small business owners and poorer citizens lived in multistory apartment buildings while the wealthy occupied urban villas. Roman engineering provided fresh water, sewage systems, and paved roads that allowed large towns to grow to over 250,000 people, with the city of Rome probably having a population near one million.
CULTURE AND RELIGION
In Roman culture, the family was regarded as the core of society. The father of the family (paterfamilias) legally had control over even his adult children, who in turn were expected to obey their parents. Loyalty to the state was seen as an extension of this relationship writ large. Simplicity, faithfulness, and duty were valued. Augustus was so worried about the perceived lack of traditional family values in his own day that he created laws to encourage people to behave better. Adultery was made illegal and punished with exile. Tax breaks were provided to those who married and had children. A man could not inherit property if he did not marry.
The Roman Empire 14 CE
Religion was another core value in Rome. As with most ancient religions, the relationship between humanity and the gods was seen as a contractual one. If the gods were happy, the person would be blessed. If the gods were unhappy, very bad things happened. The Roman term for this is “peace of the gods” (pax deorum). Religion was based on rituals and prayers, not doctrine. As the Romans conquered new areas, they usually incorporated local gods into their pantheon. Greek Zeus and Roman Jupiter were seen as the same deity, as were Minerva and the Celtic goddess Sulis.
There was no equivalent to the concept of separation of church and state. From 12 BCE, Augustus was the high priest (pontifex maximus). He recorded that he used his own money to restore over eighty temples that had been neglected or damaged in the chaos of the late Republic. Unlike many cultures, Rome did not have a separate priestly class. Elite Romans fulfilled both sacred and secular offices of state. In an attempt to determine the will of the gods, Romans could turn to priests and augurs who would interpret the entrails of sacrificed animals or signs such as the flight of birds. When it came to sacred rites, priests had to ensure that they were performed perfectly or the gods might not accept them.
Religion influenced many aspects of Roman life. Families had domestic gods (lares familiares and penates) and a shrine in the home to honor them. It was the father’s duty to ensure that all rites were completed. There were gods for towns, crossroads, and other geographical areas. Concepts and virtues had gods. Religious rites were held for the planting and the harvest, before battles, and for a family’s ancestors. Religious festivals, including games and plays, were important and religion was integrated throughout Roman culture.
Cult of Mithras Symbols of the Pater c. 200 CE
Mystery cults were popular with some Romans. Those involved went through an initiation ritual, participated in the rites for the deity, and were promised a blessed afterlife, usually with the god or goddess. These gods, such as Isis, Cybele, and Mithras, did not demand exclusive worship from their devotees and thus participation in these cults was in addition to the more traditional Roman rites.
As Christianity spread, Rome needed to decide how to interact with this new religion. For instance, Trajan (98–117), the second of the “Five Good Emperors,” declared that Christians were not to be hunted down and they would not face trial until publicly accused by two witnesses. At the trial, they could recant and nothing would happen, but if they refused to worship the pagan gods, they would be killed. With few exceptions, this remained the general approach to Christianity until it was legalized in the fourth...
