X-Ray Anatomy

George Simon, W. J. Hamilton

• Publisher: Butterworth-Heinemann
• Year: 2013
• Print ISBN: 9780407000964
• eBook ISBN: 9781483279961
• Topic: Biological Sciences
• Subtopic: Anatomy
• Index: Biological Sciences

X-Ray Anatomy describes as well as illustrates the elementary and advanced radiological anatomy. This book presents the radiograph of the various parts of the human body, including the head, neck, upper limb, lower limb, abdomen, thorax, and the vertebral column. Organized into eight chapters, this book begins with an overview of the four classical methods of inspection, percussion, palpation, and auscultation. This text then describes the structure of the human skeleton, including its physical properties and its appearance in the radiograph. Other chapters consider the surface contours and skeletal landmarks of the shoulder and arm. This book discusses as well the condition of spina bifida, which is accompanied by anomalies of the spinal cord. The final chapter deals with several diagrams showing the radiographs of the larynx, the skull, as well as the ventricular system of the brain. This book is a valuable resource for radiologists, physicians, surgeons, and internists.

CHAPTER 1

General Anatomy and Radiological Methods

Publisher Summary

The anatomy of the living subject is studied by the four classical methods of inspection, palpation, percussion, and auscultation. This chapter discusses these four methods. Inspection reveals the proportions and natural posture of the body. As these influence the radiological appearances, the two methods are complimentary. The form of parts of the human skeleton is deduced from inspection. Suitable instruments have been devised that make it possible to examine the interior of all the hollow organs possessing an external opening or communication. The interior of the larynx is examined with a laryngoscope, the larger airways with a bronchoscope or, fiberscope, the alimentary tract with a gastroscope, fiberscope, sigmoidoscope, or colonoscope, the urethra and bladder with a cystoscope, and the rectum or vagina with the aid of a speculum. Palpation gives information about some of the deeper structures that are invisible, for example, the shape of the shaft of the humerus or the size of the uterus. Percussion and auscultation further add to the total anatomical picture by giving functional data such as the state of distension of the bladder whether the heart valves are opening and closing in a normal manner, or whether air is entering or leaving the alveoli or smaller airways evenly throughout both lungs. The newer methods such as isotope studies and ultrasound echo studies help to complete the total anatomical picture.

INTRODUCTION

The anatomy of the living subject can be studied by the four classical methods of inspection, palpation, percussion and auscultation.

Inspection reveals the proportions and natural posture of the body. As these influence the radiological appearances, the two methods are complimentary. The form of parts of the human skeleton can be deduced from inspection, for example, the vault of the skull. Asymmetry of the thoracic coverings such as the breasts or muscles is obvious on inspection, and may result in shadows in the radiograph which, being due to normal anatomical structures, are normal. Movements, such as those of the thoracic wall during respiration can be seen and related to the radiological findings.

Suitable instruments have been devised which now make it possible to examine the interior of all the hollow organs possessing an external opening or communication. The interior of the larynx is examined with a laryngoscope; the larger airways with a bronchoscope or, fibrescope; the alimentary tract with a gastroscope, fibrescope, sigmoidoscope or colonoscope; the urethra and bladder with a cystoscope; and the rectum or vagina with the aid of a speculum.

Palpation may give information about some of the deeper structures which are invisible, for example, the shape of the shaft of the humerus, or the size of the uterus.

Percussion and auscultation may further add to the total anatomical picture by giving functional data such as the state of distension of the bladder, or whether the heart valves are opening and closing in a normal manner, or air is entering or leaving the alveoli or smaller airways (bronchioli) evenly throughout both lungs.

Further information about the form of many of the bones, the internal organs and viscera can be obtained by radiological methods.

The newer methods such as isotope studies and ultrasound echo studies all help to complete the total anatomical picture.

INDIVIDUAL VARIATION

Despite the fundamental similarity of structure in all human subjects, striking differences do occur and on these depend the recognition of an individual. Such characteristics as facial configuration, colouring, hair, height and build are usually noted, but hands, feet and other parts of the body exhibit just as much variation although this is often overlooked. The individuality of anatomical structure is very evident if a series of subjects is examined. Peculiarities of external form are characteristic of certain peoples. The Bushwoman, for example, exhibits a distinctive accumulation of fat in the buttocks which is described as steatopygia.

Surface contours are much influenced by the state of development of the musculature and the amount of fat in the superficial tissues. The prominences and depressions produced by underlying structures in a thin subject may be obscured in a fat one; an elevation produced by a bone in a thin subject may even be replaced by a depression if adjacent muscles are well developed, for example, over the spine of the scapula.

Certain superficially placed muscles are present in some individuals but absent in others; the palmaris longus muscle is absent in many individuals; when present it varies greatly in size and the differences in the size of its tendon are evident on examination of the wrist in a number of living subjects.

Differences occur in the detailed form of bones. The peroneal tubercle of the calcaneum may be inconspicuous or it may form a salient prominence which is very evident on inspection of the foot.

The humerus may exhibit a projection, the supracondylar process, a short distance above the medial epicondyle (Figure 57). Occasionally, in this situation, a flange of bone is present which is perforated by an ‘entepicondylar foramen’ through which pass the median nerve and brachial artery.

There are individual differences of habit in what is popularly known as ‘posture’. The stance, that is, the standing attitude of different people shows distinctive features which are so characteristic that they often serve for recognition of the individual. The sitting position may also show individual characteristics which depend on differences in the positions at the various joints. The movements of individuals are likewise distinctive, and recognition of a person by his gait is an everyday experience. The differences depend on variations of detail in the sequence and range of movement at different joints. The joint postures on which attitudes depend affect the relative position of parts of the skeleton; thus, the level of the scapulae relative to the vertebral column shows much variation. The general form of the trunk is greatly influenced by postural habit. If the upper ribs occupy a more oblique position than usual the upper part of the chest appears flattened; if they are more horizontal the chest becomes ‘barrel-shaped’. If the lumbar convexity of the spine is pronounced (Figure 1), the hollow of the back...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• By the same Author
• Copyright
• Preface
• Publishers Announcement
• Chapter 1: General Anatomy and Radiological Methods
• Chapter 2: The Human Skeletal Pattern
• Chapter 3: The Upper Limb
• Chapter 4: The Lower Limb
• Chapter 5: The Vertebral Column
• Chapter 6: The Thorax
• Chapter 7: The Abdomen
• Chapter 8: The Head and the Neck
• Appendices
• Index