Advanced Processing, Properties, and Applications of Starch and Other Bio-based Polymers

Faris M. Al-Oqla, S. M. Sapuan, S.M. Sapuan

• Publisher: Elsevier
• Year: 2020
• Print ISBN: 9780128196618
• eBook ISBN: 9780128227763
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Materials Science
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Advanced Processing, Properties, and Applications of Starch and Other Bio-based Polymers presents the latest cutting-edge research into the processing and applications of bio-based polymers, for novel industrial applications across areas including biomedical and electronics. The book is divided into three sections, covering processing and manufacture, properties, and applications. Throughout the book, key aspects of sustainability are considered, including improved utilization of available natural resources, sustainable design possibilities, cleaner production processes, and waste management.- Focuses on starch-based polymers, examining the latest advances in processing and applications with this valuable category of biopolymer- Highlights industrial sustainability considerations at all steps of the process, including when sourcing materials, designing and producing products, and dealing with waste- Supports the processing and development of starch and other bio-based polymers with enhanced functionality for advanced applications

Chapter 1: Biopolymer Composites and Sustainability

Mahmoud M. Rababah, and Faris M. AL-Oqla

Abstract

Biopolymer composites are essential for the modern industries to develop their sustainability. An enormous progress is currently achieving in polymer industry worldwide. The bio-based polymers and the polymers derived from renewable sources are of the main concern of the researchers, and therefore, they developed rapidly. Comparing to the natural biopolymers such as the natural rubber and cellulosics, bioplastics such as polylactides and polyhydroxyalkanoates achieved increasing commercial successes in last years. Many other bioplastics are expected to be involved in near-future applications due to the wide advanced steps in biotechnology lately. The molecular characteristics of the biochemical transformations for the biopolymers help in producing monomers with high purity, and in turn, in generating polymers with high molecular weight, which finds customer satisfactions in various industrial applications. One of the recent achievements is the generation of the conventional polymers as polyethylene, polybutylene, etc., in nonconventional methods through new biochemical ways preliminary with renewable, but not fossil, resources. This chapter discusses some of the new technologies achieved lately for bio-based polymers. It covers many topics such as the biopolymer synthesis, the nanocomposite biopolymers, starch-based plastics processing technologies of biopolymers, and assessments of sustainability for environmentally degradable plastics.

Keywords

Nanofiber; Cellulose; Bio-composites, biodegradable polymers; Sustainable materials; Starch

1. Introduction

It is very obvious that plastic pollution has negative impact on the environment as well as the climate change. Unfortunately, the pollution occurred along the whole production cycle of the plastic from its production using the fossil fuels until its disposal by burning. Beside the plastic pollution, deforestation, greenhouse effect, industrial pollution, and many other factors are responsible in causing the negative impact on the environment by blowing more gases to air as carbon dioxide, methane, SO₂, nitrous oxide, and many others (AL-Oqla et al., 2016; Alaaeddin et al., 2019b).

Greener plastic composites can be obtained of renewable resources in a more ecological responsible manner. This is achieved using the biotechnology and was improved using the nanotechnology, which is a promising approach that would greatly affect the value chains of the plastic industry worldwide. Some steps are already achieved in developing sustainable plastics. In fact, photodegradable plastics with a balance amount of both antioxidants and catalysts are developed. The catalysts initiate a controlled degradation while maintaining the performance properties of the plastics. These photodegradable plastics are possessing similar performance properties to conventional plastics at close costs. However, at the moment, they still use fossil fuels and they are not able to fully degrade to H₂O and CO₂ in the soil (Khabbaz et al., 1999). Besides, photofragmentation may occur if no control is performed causing a litter increase. Degradable polymers are developed without using antioxidant or with prooxidants that help in a slow degradation. Comparing to photodegradable polymers, degradable polymers possess similar performance properties, cost structure, and production of other degradation products than H₂O and CO₂, such as alcohols, alkenes, esters, and ketones (Jakubowicz, 2003). Therefore, developing sustainable plastics from biodegradable and renewable resources is a demanding goal.

An amount of 260 billion bounds of plastic were annually produced in the world at the end of the last century, with an industry value of 1 trillion dollars (Halley and Dorgan, 2011). This amount is subjected to a massive increase because of the high demanding due to the population increase and the new developed consumers' habits. Great amount of petroleum is consumed for plastic production. However, as it is finite supply, its prices will increase more and more. In addition, the environmental pollution caused from producing, using, and disposing of plastic materials is of a great concern due to greenhouse gases and the global warming effects. The decaying of world reserve from petroleum and the increasing demands from developing countries such as China and India are both cause the prices of oil to reach unprecedented levels. These high prices drive a similar increase in petroleum-based plastics. This leads for mining of lower-grade crude oil such as the Canadian heavy oil (Deffeyes, 2008). The heavy oil is less economical and more environmentally harmful than the light oil. However, plastics can be of a great assist to humanity by increasing the agricultural production, decreasing the food loses, reducing the fuel consumption, offering lighter and cheaper alternatives for many products, improving the healthcare, etc. In other words, plastic materials are essential in our modern societies. Unfortunately, the energy issues directly impact the plastics industries. What will be the impact on our daily lives, our health, our environment, and on the plastic industry itself (more than 1 million employees in the United States alone) if the sustainable technologies do not reach maturity so soon or if they are not widely adopted? Developing appropriate methods and approaches for producing green composites has been a demanding priority for some time. However, the evolving economical and technical problem limits pursuing such approaches on large scales (AL-Oqla and Sapuan, 2014a,c). Even though the need of developing bioplastic and biocomposite materials is demanding, such materials must first be cost competitive.

2. Plastic

2.1. Origin of Plastics

The polyethylene polymer used in plastic bags production is derived from petroleum. Petroleum is a complex mixture of carbon and hydrogen compounds with heavy metals as nickel and vanadium and other components as sulfur. As petroleum contains high concentration of chlorinated hydrocarbons as well as heavy metals, it is toxic to animals and plants.

The process of extraction petroleum is composed of four stages: first, crude oil is obtained by deep drilling from natural reservoirs below the sea or offshore. This crude oil is shipped to the refineries. In the second stage, the crude oil is separated by evaporation/condensation process at different temperatures. In the third stage, the compounds are yielded to conversion process in the presence of heat, pressure, and catalyst (for instance, platinum). In this process, the shape of the compounds and its molecular weight are changed. The compounds obtained from the process serves as fuel to automobiles, factories, etc. Some of these compounds can be delivered to factories for upgrading (last stage) to produce fertilizers and different plastic products. For instance, ethylene is upgraded from these refined compounds and used for plastic products. Ethylene is explosive, inflammable, toxic, and carcinogenic.

• Extraction petroleum stages: Drilling → Separation → Conversion → Upgrading

During the refining stages of the crude oil to be converted to fuel, plastics, and other petro-based products, many types of gases are emitted to air. These gases are carrying harmful components like carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, and nitrous oxide. Unfortunately, these components remain in the final petroleum compounds after the separation process. Their effects on our environment and on the ecosystems are catastrophic and can lead to acid rains, and unfortunately, these effects are irreversible.

2.2. Applications of Plastics

Plastics become more and more very essential in our modern societies. It is used in a wide variety of applications, such as in packaging, automobile industry, aerospace, agriculture, and household products, etc. Its availability, flexibility, durability, lightweight, and most important its cheap prices help plastics to dominate a great portion of the current production markets. Plastics are mainly categorized into two main groups: thermoplastics and thermosets. Thermoplastics can in general be melted and recycled, some examples of thermoplastic materials are PE, PP, PS, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polyamide. On the other side, thermosets have can neither be melted nor be recycled. This is because the polymer chains for these plastics are connected in strong cross-link bonds as the case in epoxy resin, polyurethane, and unsaturated polyester. As the petro-based plastics do not degrade, they cause pollution. The solution to this is to develop and use biodegradable bioplastics as alternatives to the conventional plastics. These bioplastics will require shorter time to decompose after been disposed. Also, they can fertilize the soil in the composting process, where they can be mix with soil in order to degrade by the help of bacteria. The life of the biodegradable bioplastics begins from renewable resource, such as cellulose and starch, and ends eco-friendly comparing with petro-based plastics.

2.3. Chemical Pollution from Plastics

Great portion of the chemical pollution occurs during energy generation; such energy is used for generating electricity, mining industry, transporta...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• List of Contributors
• Chapter 1. Biopolymer Composites and Sustainability
• Chapter 2. Processing of Thermoplastic Starch
• Chapter 3. Natural Polylactic Acid-Based Fiber Composites: A Review
• Chapter 4. Processing and Characterization of Cornstalk/Sugar Palm Fiber Reinforced Cornstarch Biopolymer Hybrid Composites
• Chapter 5. Development and Processing of PLA, PHA, and Other Biopolymers
• Chapter 6. Nanocellulose/Starch Biopolymer Nanocomposites: Processing, Manufacturing, and Applications
• Chapter 7. Mechanical Testing of Sugar Palm Fiber Reinforced Sugar Palm Biopolymer Composites
• Chapter 8. Properties and Characterization of PLA, PHA, and Other Types of Biopolymer Composites
• Chapter 9. Electrospun Cellulose Acetate Nanofiber: Characterization and Applications
• Chapter 10. Medical Implementations of Biopolymers
• Chapter 11. Modern Electrical Applications of Biopolymers
• Chapter 12. Biopolymers in Building Materials
• Chapter 13. Biopolymers for Sustainable Packaging in Food, Cosmetics, and Pharmaceuticals
• Index