Theories of Adolescent Development

Barbara M. Newman, Philip R. Newman

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2020
• Print ISBN: 9780128154502
• eBook ISBN: 9780128172544
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Developmental Psychology
• Index: Psychology

Adolescence is both universal and culturally constructed, resulting in diverse views about its defining characteristics. Theories of Adolescent Development brings together many theories surrounding this life stage in one comprehensive reference. It begins with an introduction to the nature of theory in the field of adolescence including an analysis of why there are so many theories in this field. The theory chapters are grouped into three sections: biological systems, psychological systems, and societal systems. Each chapter considers a family of theories including scope, assumptions, key concepts, contributions to the study of adolescence, approaches to measurement, applications, and a discussion of strengths and limitations of this family. A concluding chapter offers an integrative analysis, identifying five assumptions drawn from the theories that are essential guides for future research and application. Three questions provide a focus for comparison and contrast: How do the theories characterize the time and timing of adolescence? What do the theories emphasize as domains that are unfolding in movement toward maturity? Building on the perspective of Positive Youth Development, how do the theories differ in their views of developmental resources and conditions that may undermine development in adolescence?- Includes biological, psychological and sociological theories- Identifies historical roots, assumptions, key concepts, applications, measurement, strengths, and limitations of each theory- Compares and contrasts theories- Concludes with an integrated perspective across theories

Chapter 1

Introduction

Abstract

This chapter introduces the concept of adolescence and the ambiguities surrounding its definition as a developmental stage. The chapter explains the complex, multidimensional nature of the transitions that take place during adolescence and why this period requires special attention within theories of human development. The features of a developmental theory and characteristics of a “good theory” are presented, followed by a discussion of why many theories are needed to explore this dynamic period of life. The chapter concludes with a description of the organization of the book into three families of theories: those that focus on the biological system; those that focus on the psychological system; and those that focus on the societal system. The organization for the content of each chapter is outlined.

Keywords

Adolescence; Developmental stage; Developmental theory; Biological system; Psychological system; Societal system

What is adolescence? When does it begin and end?

The term “adolescence” is generally defined as the period of transition between childhood and maturity. The word “adolescence” derives from the Latin adolescere, which means to grow up or mature. It has roots in terms that refer to ripening, unfolding, and growing up.

Adolescence is typically viewed as beginning with puberty. However, research regarding pubertal development finds that for some children the biological beginnings of puberty are in evidence as early as ages 8 or 9, earlier than we typically associate with the term adolescence (Dorn, Dahl, Woodward, & Biro, 2006). The period of adolescence is viewed as ending with maturity or adulthood. But that term is also ambiguous as it is linked with biological, social/cultural, legal, historical, and religious meanings. The idea of the “age of majority” suggests an end point of adolescence, implying that the person has legal control over actions and decisions. In the United States, age of majority varies by state from age 18 to 21 (U.S. Legal.com, 2018). Nonetheless, age of majority is not identical to the age associated with specific activities such as age of sexual consent, marriageable age, school leaving age, drinking age, driving age, voting age, smoking age, gambling age, or the age at which a person can consent to medical treatment without parental permission. Again, these all vary by state in the United States. Research on the maturation of the prefrontal cortex suggests that cognitive capacities for self-regulation and higher order decision-making continue into the mid-20s (Giedd et al., 2012). These ambiguities surrounding a beginning and ending point of adolescence support the need for theories of adolescent development that highlight particular aspects of this stage of life and the conditions that support or undermine development during these years (Sawyer, Azzopardi, Wickremarathne, & Patton, 2018).

Not only is the definition of adolescence ambiguous, but so is the language used to address this period of life. Terms including youth, teen or teenager, preteen, adolescent, and emerging adult are some of the words used to refer to people in this stage of life. What is more, studies that claim to focus on adolescent development may include young people in middle school, high school, or college. They may focus on young people who are not in school, employed or not employed, or in the military. Studies that address adolescents often do not include information about pubertal status, thereby ignoring important developmental differences that may exist among children of the same chronological age. What is more, the concept of adolescence has very different connotations in different societies (Brown, Larson, & Saraswathi, 2002). Cultural groups differ in their recognition of adolescence as a distinct period of life, the status or power allocated to adolescents, as well as the normative pathways to adulthood.

The concept of adolescence encompasses biological, psychological, and societal domains (Newman & Newman, 2018). Understanding adolescent development requires a multidisciplinary perspective. This period of comparatively rapid biological change is accompanied by numerous changes in family, school, peer group, community, government, and technology resulting in a cascade of transformations. The period of adolescence brings new physical and reproductive capacities, new cognitive abilities and insights, new understandings about oneself and the nature of one's society, one's role in the community, and new opportunities to express one's talents, formulate meaningful goals, and achieve clarity of purpose. At the same time, complex demands of society and one's social groups make entry into the full enactment of adult roles more difficult, prolonging adolescence and delaying the sense of oneself as fully “adult” (Furstenberg, 2010).

Why does adolescence deserve its own theories?

Given the multidisciplinary nature of the study of adolescence, there is a need to focus on each aspect of development as well as to understand the interactions among these domains. Adolescence is a period of biological change that is taking place over the years from approximately age 10 to 24. Physical changes in reproductive maturity, stature, strength, and endurance are accompanied by hormonal changes, as well as changes in the growth and sculpting of neural networks in the brain. Theories that focus on biological changes are needed to understand the factors that support or impede these changes, the impact of environmental conditions on biological changes, and the relationship of biological changes to interpersonal behaviors, academic abilities, athletic capacities, interests, and self-awareness.

Adolescence brings significant changes in the psychological system including an unfolding of new interests, a desire for new levels of autonomy and self-expression, new capacities for understanding complex problems, new approaches to the evaluation of risk and related decision-making, and new insights about oneself as a person with a past as well as with potential futures. Psychological theories focus on the conflicts that arise as a result of new drives and motivations, the creative process of self-definition and identities, and the pursuit of short- and long-term goals. These theories provide concepts that help illuminate processes that are typically difficult to observe directly. They provide a lens to private preoccupations that may, at times, contribute to an adolescent's feelings of social isolation, sullenness, rebelliousness, or unexplained exuberance. These theories lead to an appreciation of adolescence as a time to become more authentic, to engage in self-authorship, to experience heightened self-consciousness, or to be bound by rigid self-control.

Adolescence is experienced in the context of numerous societal circumstances including changing historical resources and pressures, family and peer group environments, social norms and cultural expectations, school environments, neighborhoods, and work settings. Societal theories provide a lens for examining the interpersonal relationships that shape adolescents’ values and their self-image; the social roles that impose norms and role expectations; and social identities including gender, race, ethnicity, social class, disability, and sexual orientation that impact a young person's ideas about self in society. These theories broaden the understanding of the current experiences of adolescents as specific to the particular culture and historical period during which the young person is maturing.

Adolescence can be understood as a time that links generations. Theories help account for how the history of a person's infancy and childhood contributes to the unfolding of a young person's self-understanding, values, morality, and desires for the future. Theories further understanding of the role adolescents play in the transformation of cultures as they encounter new technologies and social messages that guide them toward changing values. As young people make decisions that shape their goals and ambitions, the new capabilities of the period become salient. Emerging definitions of what it means to be successful, to be moral, or to be fulfilled become the essence of each new generation of adults. What is happening for youth serves as a precursor for the future of the society. Do young people come of age in a time of civility, productivity, and openness, or a time of fearfulness, cautiousness, and a survival orientation? Characteristics of the historical period as well as features of their immediate environments guide the adolescents’ adaptations.

Decisions and behaviors that occur in adolescence have significant physical, social, and mental health consequences. Attitudes formed regarding gender roles, educational goals, career aspirations, religious/moral values, and family formation can impact future opportunities and resources. Theories can be useful in guiding applications and interventions including human services, education, health, mental health, recreation, arts and music, sports, family life, social welfare, civic engagement, religious education, consumer science, the law, and juvenile justice.

What are characteristics of a scientific theory? What are features of a good theory?

A theory is a logical system of concepts that helps explain observations and contributes to the development of a body of knowledge as in a theory of evolution or guides an approach to practice as in a theory of education. We all have our informal, intuitive theories about why people behave as they do. For example, the adage “The acorn doesn’t fall far from the tree,” is an informal theory that predicts that children are going to grow up to behave a lot like their parents. However, a scientific theory is different from an informal set of beliefs. A formal scientific theory is a set of interconnected statements, including assumptions, definitions, and hypotheses, that explain and interpret observations. The function of this set of interconnected statements is to describe unobservable structures, mechanisms, or processes and to relate them to one another in order to explain observable events. For example, in learning, the information or strategies that have been learned are not observable nor is the process of learning. The information becomes observable by asking questions, giving a test, or presenting a situation where the information must be used to solve a problem. However, the process of learning the information is not directly observable and our understanding of this process relies on theories that attempt to explain how new information is acquired, remembered, and produced when needed. Components of a theory and characteristics of a good theory are listed in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1

What is a theory?

Components of a theory	Characteristics of a good theory
Assumptions	Logical and internally consistent
Domains	Hypotheses can be explored through systematic research
Constructs	Parsimonious
Hypotheses	Integrates previous research in a relatively large area of science
	Identifies causal relationships and unifies diverse observations to account for constancy and change

In the field of human development, theory is diffe...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• About the Authors
• Preface
• Chapter 1: Introduction
• Part I: The biological system
• Part II: The psychological system
• Part III: The societal system
• Index