1.1. Overview of smart city concept and context
āSmart cityā is now the popular concept driving cities around the world to a new level of technology innovation and quality of life enhancement while simultaneously a term being co-opted for the purpose of attracting investment and stimulating new economic opportunities. This latter purpose is a critical part of the establishment of a sustainable business ecosystem that can support the requirements of the development of a smart city and the next generation of urban growth. Investment is a necessary, but not sufficient, precondition for establishing a smart city. The determination of what is required to make a city smart originates in the unique characteristics of each individual city: its geographic location, physical composition, inhabitants, workforce, government structure and policies. The term ācity DNAā is used in this book to express this complex composition specific to each city.
Over the last several years as the definition of smart city has emerged, numerous research initiatives, technical studies and reports have been published to create a coherent etymological framework and taxonomy of smart cities. The book Understanding Smart Cities: A Tool for Smart Government or an Industrial Trick? ( Anthopoulos, 2017 ) explains the evolution of the concepts and terminology of smart cities, beginning with the earliest references to digital cities beginning in the 1990s. Since then, multiple interpretations of smart cities are fashioned based on the stages of technological advancements including the Internet of things (IoT), smartphones and various tech fads that are codependent in the sense of establishing a new language representing market-driven innovation. āSmart cityā discourse initiated around the requirements of ICT to address urban conditions and adapt to local needs, and has been continuously evolving and converging into more complex schematic representations.
In tracing the etymology of the term smart cities through different incarnations, we see that the way we use language to shape and style our social reality obscures the more significant reality of the merging of the physical and digital realms, the convergence of technology and everything else as an evolutionary process. It may be right under our noses, but the scent is elusive. Some true aspect of smart cities is masked by our linguistic comprehension of it. In defining things, much perspective is gained but something is lost in translation; this is akin to the concept of leaky abstractions in programming. This book points to the process of convergence (beyond words) as the key to understanding the evolution of smart cities and paths to adoption.
The importance of understanding the evolutionary process of how cities adopt and integrate technologies to transform the nature of the city is critical within the context of determining how and why technology is best utilized to achieve the goals and requirements of each city to remain competitive and cooperative within the global landscape. As introduced in the previous chapter, the convergence theory applied to society in the context of smart cities describes the nature of all systems to develop parallel or similar traits when provided the same resources, opportunities and industrial or technological systems. This deterministic view of the evolution of cities and societies reinforces the hypothesis that all cities will arrive at a similar stage of technological development if presented with the same technological advancements, leading to the lessening of the disparity between smart cities versus those that are less developed. However, this theory presupposes that cities are similar in terms of their initial starting point, which we elaborate further in this chapter and define as the Net Present Potential.
To determine the potential for cities to achieve being defined as a smart city, a major consideration is the historic context of development. It is this criterion that differentiates the unique smart city strategy and implementation plan that is required to achieve the goals of what is āsmart.ā Around the world, the diverse types of cities and their stage of development, from historical cities to new planned cities, influence which direction the smart city development will take its course. This diversity has made it challenging for professionals and those leading the development of smart cities to agree upon an established language and approach. To solve this issue, initiatives are taking place internationally by diverse stakeholders and professionals to develop a universal language including the establishment of ISO standards and best practices that will eventually govern the development of smart cities.
Technology is evolving in teleonomic (undirected) and teleological (directed) ways and converging on AI-driven, autonomous, self-regulating systems. Likewise, our societies and cities evolve in similar ways and by definition are āself-organizingā given that no one person is omniscient. The ultimate goal is for Artificial Intelligence (AI) to assist in the self-regulation of cities as living systems. If we think of traditional forms of city governance like the process of triage, then self-regulating smart cities use AI and machine learning to monitor systems in real time and anticipate problems, thereby saving everyone with fewer resources. Technology has had a clear āautomationā function since the industrial revolution and the assembly line was born. In the 21st century, automation is eliminating the final sectors of physical labor and human work is increasingly abstract. The autonomization of smart cities therefore recognizes the imperative to serve the needs of the people who make it up.
āA city is a system of systems with a unique history and set in a specific environmental and societal context. In order for it to flourish, all the key city actors need to work together, utilizing all of their resources, to overcome the challenges and grasp the opportunities that the city faces. The āsmartnessā of a city describes its ability to bring together all its resources, to effectively and seamlessly achieve the goals and fulfil the purposes it has set itself.ā
ISO/IEC 2015.
As cities developed over many centuries, the physical, socioeconomic configuration has transformed in some cases drastically, while in others the form of cities has expanded in a linear progression that has reflected the organic growth of the city as a direct response to population increase and the need for expanded land areas. In the recent TV documentary series Ancient Invisible Cities (BBC Two, 2018), Istanbul is explored for its reconfigurations over the past 2000 years from Roman outpost, to the seat of the Ottoman Turk empire, from Pagan to Roman to Christian to Islamic to today's more secular multicultural city. As explained through digital models and 3D visualization, including Virtual Reality (VR), these massive transformations, as a result of shifts of empires, wars and conquests, are expressed in the complex strata of urban archeology architects define as palimpsest. Meaning the layers of architectural formal language written over time, in this case representing the physical manifestation of Istanbul's evolution from ancient to modern times as a gateway between the East and the West.
In Section 1.3 we develop our concept of six dimensions of the city, which are both layered on top of and throughout each other, culminating in a seamless continuum. These dimensions are based on the fact that the āfirst distinctive characteristic of smart cities is the central role of te...