PEM Water Electrolysis

Dmitri Bessarabov, Pierre Millet, Bruno G. Pollet

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2018
• eBook ISBN: 9780128111468
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Power Resources
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cell Primers is a series of concise books that present those coming into this broad and multidisciplinary field the most recent advances in each of its particular topics. Its volumes bring together information that has thus far been scattered in many different sources under one single title, which makes them a useful reference for industry professionals, researchers and graduate students, especially those starting in a new topic of research.These volumes, PEM Water Electrolysis vol 1 and 2, allows these readers to identify the technology gaps for the development of commercially viable PEM electrolysis systems for energy applications. This primer examines the fundamentals of PEM electrolysis and selected research topics that are currently subject of attention by academic and industry community, such as gas cross-over and AST protocols. This lays the foundation for the exploration of the current industrial trends for PEM electrolysis, such as power to gas application, are discussed, with strong focus on the current trends in the application of PEM electrolysis associated with energy storage. These include durability aspects of PEM electrolysis systems and components, accelerated stress test protocols, manufacturing aspects of large-scale electrolyzers and components, gas crossover problems in PEM electrolyzer safety, and challenges associated with high-current density operation of PEM electrolyzers. A technology development matrix for systems and components requirements will also be covered, as well as unconventional PEM water electrolysis systems, such as ozone generators- Presents the fundamentals and most current knowledge in proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers- Explores the technology gaps and challenges for commercial deployment of PEM water electrolysis technologies- Includes unconventional systems, such as ozone generators- Brings together information from many different sources under one single title, making it a useful reference for industry professionals, researchers and graduate students alike

Chapter 1

Introduction

Abstract

Brief historical background on hydrogen production and detailed description of hydrogen use by various industries with detailed reference list are given in this chapter. A global hydrogen production by source is also provided.

Keywords

Hydrogen production; hydrogen use; historical overview; hydrogen production by source

1.1 Overview of Hydrogen Use

To provide attributes of a developed society, such as the supply of electricity, natural gas, and water, to industrial and residential markets, complex technologies and costly infrastructure have been developed and built (also backed by political interests). These include the exploration and extraction of natural resources, the processing and purification thereof (in the case of water, natural gas, etc.), logistics of distribution and delivery, etc. Notwithstanding all advancements in infrastructural development, in the case of energy supply to the point of use, an estimated 1.1 billion people have no access to electricity, according to World Energy Outlook in 2016 (World Energy Outlook, 2017). Currently, approximately 90% of world energy demands are supplied by fossil fuels (Djinovic and Schuth, 2015).

In cases where the levelized cost of electricity is prohibitively high for rural and isolated areas, such as in remote mines, subarctic regions, rural agro-processing centers in Africa, and elsewhere, the use of alternative infrastructure options to provide electricity to meet specific end-user requirements becomes attractive. These options may include, e.g., microgrids, fuel cell systems with integrated on-site hydrogen production using renewable energy sources. Such microgrid systems can supply energy to small communities. In many of these cases, hydrogen is proposed to be used as an energy storage medium, to be converted into electricity by means of proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells. However, the high cost of hydrogen production and storage for the above-mentioned applications remains a significant challenge.

Hydrogen has many attractive properties as an energy carrier. Hydrogen has a high energy density on a per mass basis: for example, hydrogen’s higher heating value (HHV) is 39.4 kWh/kg, whereas the values of methane, propane, and gasoline are 15.4, 14.0, and 13.3 kWh/kg, respectively. Similar to electricity, hydrogen is a versatile energy carrier, and it can be generated from a variety of widely available primary energy sources, including natural gas, coal, biomass, etc.

With the recent increase in awareness and concerns regarding global warming and an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide gas, contributing to climate change, as well as possible depletion of easily accessible fossil fuel deposits, hydrogen has become a focal point of discussion, among various groups of our society, as a potential clean energy carrier, if it is produced using renewable energy sources.

One needs to be realistic, however, in all cases of clean hydrogen production and large-scale application of hydrogen technology, significant investments, infrastructural changes, and a strong political will to accomplish deployment of hydrogen in the energy systems will be required.

The petrochemical industry, petroleum refining applications, and ammonia production are by far the largest consumers of hydrogen, followed by methanol production and metallurgical applications. According to the frequently cited report of the Freedonia Group (Freedonia: World Hydrogen, 2012), in 2011, petroleum refining accounted for 79% of all hydrogen consumed by volume.

Currently, a steady growth in hydrogen demand, driven by various industries, is observed. According to the Freedonia Group (Freedonia: World Hydrogen, 2012), between 2001 and 2011, world hydrogen demand by volume increased by a total of 47%, to 234 billion cubic meters. Of this, an increase of 75 billion cubic meters (two-thirds) was accounted for by the world’s refineries, which are increasingly producing cleaner burning fuels that require more hydrogen for fuel production. According to the same report, in 2011, the global hydrogen demand was 184.9 billion cubic meters for petrochemical applications, 27.7 billion cubic meters for various chemical manufacturing applications, while all other applications accounted for 17.5 billion cubic meters.

In 1671, Robert Boyle described the chemical reaction between iron (Fe) filings and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) giving off a flammable gas. In 1766, Henry Cavendish demonstrated that these bubbles comprised a gas, different to other gases, and when this gas burns it forms water; hence he obtained credit for the discovery of hydrogen. The gas was given its name “hydro-gen”, meaning “water-former,” by Antoine Lavoisier (Royal Society of Chemistry, 2017).

One hundred years ago, the use of hydrogen was very limited. One of the earliest small industrial applications of hydrogen was, for example, for lead autogenous welding and piping. Earlier use of hydrogen also accounted for lighting and heating as “town gas.”

In tandem with technological advances in our society, various industries are now requiring increasingly more hydrogen. Hydrogen is used in a wide variety of chemical processes. The authors therefore are of the opinion that it is worthwhile to provide a high-level overview of various industries that use hydrogen as well as an update of previously published information. One of the first comprehensive books on the use of hydrogen in various industries was published by Ioffe (1960).

Other detailed reports include those of Schnurnberger (1988), Ramachandran and Menon (1998), Djinovic and Schuth (2015), and Sasaki et al. (2016). Detailed information on the use of hydrogen in refineries is given by Speight (2016) and in other chemical industries by Ausfelder and Bazzanella (2016).

Table 1.1 gives a comprehensive overview of various processes that require hydrogen, along with some of the significant milestones and the relevant references.

Table 1.1

High-Level Overview of Hydroge...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• About the Authors
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Chapter 1. Introduction
• Chapter 2. Brief Historical Background of Water Electrolysis
• Chapter 3. Fundamentals of Water Electrolysis
• Chapter 4. The Individual Proton-Exchange Membrane Cell and Proton-Exchange Membrane Stack
• Chapter 5. Gas Permeation in PEM Water Electrolyzers
• Index