The terms forensic investigator and forensic investigation are part of our cultural identity. They can be found in the news, on television, and in film. They are invoked, generally, to imply that highly trained personnel will be collecting some form of physical evidence with eventual scientific results that cannot be questioned or bargained with. In other words, they are invoked to imply the reliability, certainty, and authority of a scientific inquiry.
This can be a good thing, the authors would agree, when there are well-educated and properly trained professionals involved in the process. Primarily because everyone liesāsome intentionally and some unintentionally, gathering and examining physical evidence is the only way to ensure that lies are exposed and kept from the gates of justice. As a mechanism for this effort, the forensic investigator is meant to be an objective truth seeker.
There are some problems, however. First, not everyone knows what these terms actually mean, so their use can be inappropriate or even misleading. This means there are those in the justice system using these terms to create a false impression about what has or will be done with the evidence.
Second, not everyone involved in the justice systems wants the facts or evidence on the record. As one gains experience with criminal investigation and the courts, one learns there are those who would prefer certain evidence not be documented, examined, or made public. Motives vary, including apathy, incompetence, politics, and fear of consequences (e.g., jail time, civil liability, or both). For those that might not appreciate the severity, or the reality of the problem, they need but reference the public facts relating to any one of the following national conditions:
ā¢ the existence of tens of thousands of unexamined rape kits in police custody (Reilly, 2015)1;
ā¢ the frequency and timing with which law enforcement dash cams have been intentionally switched off, usually at key moments during police contact with civilians (Rubin, 2014);
ā¢ the frequency and timing with which officer body cams and audio have been intentionally disabled by those wearing themāto deliberately prevent a record from being created (Main & Dumpke, 2015);
ā¢ the intentional destruction of ādecades of recordsā that detail law enforcement misconduct and disciplinary actions (Berg, 2015);
ā¢ the frequent refusal of law enforcement agencies to open criminal investigations into illegal steroid rings involving their own, and to mandate officer drug testing (see Crowder & Turvey, 2015).
ā¢ the continuous stream of cases involving police and prosecutorial misconduct related to lying about, hiding, or destroying evidence that should have been collected, preserved, or merely turned over to opposing counsel during criminal and civil proceedings (Kosinksi, 2015; Volokh, 2015).
For example, one of the authors (Turvey) testified as an expert during a sexual assault case in the State of Oregon2. The case involved negligent failure to collect, document, and test an array of physical evidenceālet alone to attend or process the alleged crime scene in any real fashion (among many other investigative and forensic shortcomings). The judge in that case ruled that the police had no duty to conduct a forensic investigation at that level, and that there was subsequently no need for testimony from anyone to explain (and make a public record of) these deficiencies before the jury. The judge further ruled that the police had no duty to conduct a thorough investigation in accordance with policies outlined by the State of Oregon's Attorney General's Sexual Assault Task Force; and no duty to consider or collect evidence that might tend to bear on the defendant's innocence. Once an accusation of rape was made, the police were within their duties to assume it was true and move forward without considering the physical evidence. The author, testifying before the court under oath, asked the judge whether he intended to explain this ruling to the jury. And then the author asked why the state employed forensic scientists and operated crime labs if law enforcement had no such dutyāwhat was the point if they could simply ignore all of the physical evidence? The judge did not answer, as was his privilege.
Such examples are just the tip of the iceberg, but they demonstrate how common the problem of evidence suppression is, even among those who swear an oath to ensure its identification and investigation.
These concerns have been ever present motivators in the authors' casework and teachings. They have also served to drive the completion of this project. Our belief is simple: as more people understand what a forensic investigation is, and what it requires, there will be fewer capable of abusing or ignoring the evidence that it puts on the record. We understand that this will take some explaining. And those readers who do not yet fully understand the landscape of what we have experienced in the justice system are about to.
The purpose of this textbook is to help students and professionals rid themselves of the myths and misconceptions they have accumulated regarding forensic investigators, and the subsequent forensic investigations they help to conduct. This text will help the reader understand the role of the forensic investigator; the nature and variety of forensic investigations that take place in the justice system; and the mechanisms by which such investigations become worthy as evidence in court. The goals are no more lofty than that. However, they could not be more necessary to our understanding of what justice is, how it is most reliably achieved, and how it can be corrupted by those who are burdened with apathy and alternative motives.
Corpus Delicti
The investigation of reported crimes is the statutory and jurisdictional province of law enforcement agencies; the agency in charge depends on which laws have been reported broken and where3. Nobody else has the legal authority to respond, interview witnesses and suspects, collect evidence, or make arrests in these cases. Consequently responding law enforcement agencies have a duty of careāan obligation to be competent custodians of the criminal investigations they initiate and any evidence that supports or refutes allegations of criminal activity against accused suspects.
Investigators may not assume what happened based on the statements of one party; they may not assume that a crime has actually occurred until the facts have been established; and they must impartially place the cuffs on anyone they determine has broken the law when their investigative work is complete. As explained in Bryden and Lengnick (1997, pp. 1230ā1231):
As with all crimes, the police decide whether a reported rape actually occurred, and attempt to determine who committed it. If they want the case to go forward, they āfoundā the complaint and transmit the file to the prosecutor's officeā¦ The police must investigate, a task that cannot easily be combined with offering the emotional support that the victim needs. The detective presumably wishes to avoid an injustice to a wrongly accused individual. In addition, for reasons of professional pride, he does his best to avoid looking naive by falling for a story that turns out to be false. Experienced investigators also know that m...