3D Data Acquisition for Bioarchaeology, Forensic Anthropology, and Archaeology

Noriko Seguchi, Beatrix Dudzik

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2019
• Print ISBN: 9780128153093
• eBook ISBN: 9780128155462
• Topic: Medicine
• Subtopic: Orthopedics

3D Data Acquisition for Bioarchaeology, Forensic Anthropology, and Archaeology serves as a handbook for the collection and processing of 3-D scanned data and as a tool for scholars interested in pursuing research projects with 3-D models. The book's chapters enhance the reader's understanding of the technology by covering virtual model processing protocols, alignment methods, actual data acquisition techniques, basic technological protocols, and considerations of variation in research design associated with biological anthropology and archaeology.- Thoroughly guides the reader through the "how-to on different stages of 3D-data-related research- Provides statistical analysis options for 3D image data- Covers protocols, methods and techniques as associated with biological anthropology and archaeology

Chapter One

Introduction

Noriko Seguchi ^{1 , 2} , Beatrix Dudzik ³ , Mary-Margaret Murphy ² , and Anna M. Prentiss ^{2 1} Faculty of Social and Cultural Studies, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan ² Department of Anthropology, The University of Montana, Missoula, MT, The United States of America ³ Department of Anatomy, DeBusk College of Osteopathic Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, TN, The United States of America

Abstract

This introduction covers the following topics: the history of various scanned data and three-dimensional (3D) technologies within biological anthropology, which includes bioarchaeology, forensic anthropology, paleoanthropology, archaeology, and medical sciences, as well as the benefits of 3D projects and collaboration. This introduction advocates for the advantages researchers can derive from making collaborative efforts such as sharing, combining data sets, and cooperating remotely. It also outlines the contents of each chapter contained in this text.

Keywords

Geometric morphometrics; History; Landmark; Scanned data; Three-dimensional technology

Introduction

Advances in three-dimensional (3D) technology have impacted biological anthropology, archaeology, and geometric morphometric (GM) research in many ways related to the virtual preservation of skeletal and archaeological collections. 3D digitizing and imaging methods are now enabling researchers to expand and improve biological anthropological, forensic anthropological, and archaeological research. Various analytical methods for understanding shape and morphological diversification have been innovated. The 3D approach is becoming a significant toolkit in biological/forensic anthropology and archaeology.

Anthropological research into the evolution of shapes using GM analysis has a long history (Bookstein, 1991; Rohlf and Marcus, 1993) and in recent years has become a critical tool in biological anthropology (McKeown and Jantz, 2005; McKeown and Schmidt, 2013). Throughout the history of anthropology, craniofacial morphology has been intensely studied by biological anthropologists (Howells, 1973, 1996; Slice et al., 2005; Williams and Slice, 2010). For example, the analysis of ancient populations through the investigation of craniofacial variation has been used widely. It is considered to be an effective and informative way to understand population relationships and modern population structure and to infer relationships in the past (i.e., Hanihara, 1996; Brace et al., 2001, 2006, 2014; Seguchi et al., 2011; Schmidt and Seguchi, 2014, 2016). Because of the neutrality of craniofacial traits and structures (Relethford, 2004a, 2004b; Weaver et al., 2007; Von Cramon-Taubadel, 2009, 2011; 2019; Betti et al., 2009, 2010; Relethford, 2010 ), statistical analysis of craniofacial shapes (morphometrics) are used for assigning membership to certain human populations and for identification in the fields of biological and forensic anthropology. Biological anthropology has focused on not just research on population history and structure using neutral craniofacial morphology but also on the study of functional morphology, such as masticatory stress or climate adaptation (Harvati and Weaver, 2006; Fukase et al., 2015; Ohno et al., 2016; Nathan et al., 2018). These aspects recently have been investigated by anthropologists using shape analysis with 3D technology. 3D measuring techniques and 3D imaging are now opening up new possibilities in the study of population history and structure and functional morphology.

Moreover, valuable 3D data from human mummified and skeletal remains (e.g., “Ötzi,” “Kennewick individual,” Ardipithecus, Homo naledi, etc.) captured by computed tomography (CT) and scanning magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) from various archaeological sites during the last decades have spurred the continuing growth of cutting edge scientific research. 3D data have been used to conduct more accurate reconstruction and are providing many new insights on issues such as causes of death, diseases the individuals suffered from, and so on.

Morphometric studies in archaeology using 3D scanning have begun to appear in the archaeological literature, especially associated with lithic tool studies, such as Paleo-Indian projectile point tip shapes using GM (Buchanan and Collard, 2010) and phylogenetic studies of projectile points (Shott, 2011a, 2011b). It is clear that the current advanced research on lithic technology is dependent on access to 3D scanning technology for GM analysis.

Additionally, 3D scanning offers an opportunity to recognize and to quantify morphological variability of artifacts, including convexity and twist and scar patterns that are difficult or impossible to recognize under normal optical conditions (Bretzke and Conard, 2012). This can result in the ability to collect sophisticated data observations, and it provides enhanced visual perspectives on artifacts made from rough materials, such as patterns of scars (Scholts et al., 2012) and pictorial line drawings that are difficult to observe without access to 3D images (Prentiss et al., 2015).

Although crania have many homologous landmarks, archaeological artifacts such as lithics and potteries have few homologous landmarks. Therefore, utilization of semilandmarks has been developed. 3D scanning has proved useful in research not only in biological anthropology (including bioarchaeology and forensic anthropology) but also in archaeology.

Difficulty of utilization of 3D technology

Learning how to acquire useful 3D model data, as well as manipulation and familiarization with 3D virtual data and the virtual environment, will be beneficial for the fields of biological anthropology, bioarchaeology, forensic anthropology, and archaeology. Although the 3D methods and techniques are extremely attractive to many anthropologists, technologies such as high-resolution 3D images created from CT and MRI are difficult to use for nonmedical researchers because the devices are expensive, require specialized training to operate, and require expensive software programs. In addition, materials such as mummified remains are usually stationary and cannot be removed from their research institution. For the analysis of shape and functional morphology, biological and forensic anthropologists have started to use portable 3D digitizers and portable laser 3D surface scanners. Laser scanners have a wide price range, from more affordable devices of around $5000 to expensive laser and white light scanner devices that are more than $50,000 (Kuzminsky and Gardiner, 2012). Researchers have been able to start using inexpensive devices to create images in cases where they lack access to the highest quality 3D surface scanners. Devices usually come with software used to view, process, and manipulate the scans, but it requires extensive training to create 3D images. It is time-consuming to learn how to create proper 3D models using these devices in comparison to traditional 2D measurements.

There are plenty of published articles that discuss and use 3D digitizers and 3D scanners for studies in the field of biological anthropology. However, such articles usually focus on GM analysis and elliptical Fourier analysis (i.e., Garvin and Ruff, 2012; Scholts et al., 2011; Thayer and Dobson, 2010 ). These articles are often difficult for beginners to follow and also may not specifically describe details of data acquisition and processing techniques (Kuzminsky and Gardiner, 2012). In addition, academic articles do not mention the difficulties beginners may encounter; for example, how to set up a cranium or a long bone in a stable manner, how to determine which materials may cause difficulties in the capture of images, and what kinds of surface processing should be chosen. Beginners often wish to use several free software packages for processing models, collecting landmarks, and GM analysis. It can be difficult to master how to use free software packages without someone's help unless participating in 3D research networks/groups. If students choose 3D projects without a 3D-equipped lab with advisors to direct them, they may end up spending many years trying to figure out all of the 3D processes needed to analyze their data. Helping to save others from the above challenges we have faced is the driving force behind writing this handbook.

This handbook covers two 3D technologies: (1) the 3D digitizer and (2) the 3D scanner. We mainly focus on craniofacial data acquisition and data analysis, but in one chapter, we also cover 3D data acquisition and analysis of archaeological artifacts. As a handbook for the collection and processing of 3D scanned data, this book provides a tool for scholars and students interested in pursuing research projects with 3D models. This handbook explores the best practices of data acquisition methods for recording landmark and semilandmark data on fragile archaeol...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• Contributors
• Chapter One. Introduction
• Chapter Two. Digital model sample—Scanning and processing protocol
• Chapter Three. Three-dimensional investigations of fragile archaeological human remains
• Chapter Four. Landmark and semilandmark data collection using digitizers and data processing
• Chapter Five. Landmark and semilandmark data collection using 3D virtual model and data processing
• Chapter Six. Validity assessment: Validity testing of mixed data by multiple devices, methods, and observers
• Chapter Seven. 3D data analysis using R: 3D data processing, shape analysis, and surface manipulations in R
• Chapter Eight. Considerations in the application of 3DGM to stone artifacts with a focus on orientation error in bifaces
• Chapter Nine. Conclusions
• Index