Conceptual Breakthroughs in Evolutionary Ecology

Laurence Mueller

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2019
• Print ISBN: 9780128160138
• eBook ISBN: 9780128160145
• Topic: Biological Sciences
• Subtopic: Ecology
• Index: Biological Sciences

Although biologists recognize evolutionary ecology by name, many only have a limited understanding of its conceptual roots and historical development. Conceptual Breakthroughs in Evolutionary Ecology fills that knowledge gap in a thought-provoking and readable format.Written by a world-renowned evolutionary ecologist, this book embodies a unique blend of expertise in combining theory and experiment, population genetics and ecology. Following an easily-accessible structure, this book encapsulates and chronologizes the history behind evolutionary ecology. It also focuses on the integration of age-structure and density-dependent selection into an understanding of life-history evolution.- Covers over 60 seminal breakthroughs and paradigm shifts in the field of evolutionary biology and ecology- Modular format permits ready access to each described subject- Historical overview of a field whose concepts are central to all of biology and relevant to a broad audience of biologists, science historians, and philosophers of science

Chapter One

1859 And in the beginning

Abstract

There can be no serious discussion of evolutionary ecology without a reference to Charles Darwin and his revolutionary theory of evolution by natural selection. These ideas were originally laid out in his book “On the origin of species” (Darwin, 1859). Darwin insightfully recognized how the physical and biological environment will interact with variation within species to produce adaptations that permit organismal survival in those environments. Indeed, much of the focus of evolutionary ecology has been the detailing of how those interactions have proceeded and molded important physiological, morphological, and life historical traits of organisms.

Keywords

Adaptation; Darwin; Evolution; Gemmules; Selection; Struggle for existence

The concept

There can be no serious discussion of evolutionary ecology without a reference to Charles Darwin and his revolutionary theory of evolution by natural selection. These ideas were originally laid out in his book “On the origin of species” (Darwin, 1859). Darwin insightfully recognized how the physical and biological environment will interact with variation within species to produce adaptations that permit organismal survival in those environments. Indeed, much of the focus of evolutionary ecology has been the detailing of how those interactions have proceeded and molded important physiological, morphological, and life historical traits of organisms.

The explanation

Darwin's writing was simple yet precise and his keen insights about the impact of the effects of local ecology can best be explained through his own words. His idea was that the environment was not constant and thus environmental variation was a challenge organisms must adapt to. Selection in variable environments has been a major topic of study by evolutionary ecologists.

…we do not always bear in mind, that though food may be now superabundant, it is not so at all seasons of each recurring year.

Darwin (1859, chpt 3)

Darwin also understood that a population could not increase exponentially without bound. He used this concept to suggest that the struggle for existence, and hence the opportunity for natural selection, could happen during any part of the organism's life cycle starting with the seed or egg.

Every being, which during its natural lifetime produces several eggs or seeds, must suffer destruction during some period of its life, and during some season or occasional year, otherwise, on the principle of geometrical increase, its numbers would quickly become so inordinately great that no country could support the product.

Darwin (1859, chpt 3)

Life-history evolution has become a prominent part of evolutionary ecology. Certainly, as I will discuss later, the timing of reproduction and mortality events has been a focus of both theoretical and experimental research in evolutionary ecology.

In a simple way Darwin also showed how quantitative and population dynamic reasoning could be brought to bear on questions of evolution.

Linnaeus has calculated that if an annual plant produced only two seeds—and there is no plant so unproductive as this—and their seedlings next year produced two, and so on, then in twenty years there would be a million plants.

Darwin (1859, chpt 3)

Of all the biological sciences, evolution and evolutionary ecology have a long history of utilization of mathematical theories. Darwin clearly understood this and used calculations of this sort to explicitly demonstrate the ease with which organisms could overpopulate their environment.

The physical environment can produce unique challenges to life. Darwin understood that organisms better able to tolerate the stresses of heat, cold, and humidity extremes would have an advantage.

The action of climate seems at first sight to be quite independent of the struggle for existence; but in so far as climate chiefly acts in reducing food, it brings on the most severe struggle between the individuals, whether of the same or of distinct species, which subsist on the same kind of food.

Darwin (1859, chpt 3)

Thus, competition may be intensified by abiotic factors.

…if these enemies or competitors be in the least degree favoured by any slight change of climate, they will increase in numbers, and, as each area is already fully stocked with inhabitants, the other species will decrease.

Darwin (1859, chpt 3)

Darwin also noted how the composition of a community has effects on the species present. So, when Scotch Fir was introduced to a stretch of barren heath plantations he noted,

…but twelve species of plants (not counting grasses and carices) flourished in the plantations, which could not be found on the heath. The effect on the insects must have been still greater, for six insectivorous birds were very common in the plantations, which were not to be seen on the heath; and the heath was frequented by two or three distinct insectivorous birds.

Darwin (1859, chpt 3)

Evolution of predators and prey has been another important area of research in evolutionary ecology as has the study of competing species.

A major problem which Darwin was unable to solve was the nature of the hereditary material. He proposed that this material was carried in particles called gemmules which circulated through the blood and collected in the reproductive organs. This idea was tested by Francis Galton (1871) by transfusing blood between different varieties of rabbits. Needless to say the experiment provided clear evidence against Darwin's theory of heredity.

Impact: 10

Darwin's work is not only the most important scientific breakthrough for evolutionary ecology but arguably for all of science. The fact that we can find in Darwin's Origin of Species descriptions of important problems that are still the focus of study today lends credence to the vast impact his work has had.

References

Darwin C.  On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life . London: John Murray; 1859.

Galton F. Experiments in pangenesis by breeding from rabbits of pure variety into whose circulation blood taken from other varieties had been infused.  Proc. R. Soc. Lond.  1871;19:404.

Chapter Two

1894 Measuring selection in nature

Abstract

As the work of Darwin excited the community of scientists there was interest in collecting evidence of natural selection in action. Walter F. R. Weldon was one of the first to take on this task. Darwin emphasized the role of individual variation that might confer an advantage in reproduction or survival to its carrier. Weldon made measurements of the shell size of the crab Carcinus moenas among young and adult crabs (Weldon, 1894–1895). By separating out changes that might be due to growth versus changes that were due to selective loss he made one of the first attempts to measure natural selection in nature through differential survival.

Keywords

Crabs; Differential survival; Natural selection; Selective deaths; Shell morphology; Weldon

The concept

As the work of Darwin excited the community of scientists there was interest in collecting evidence of natural selection in action. Walter F. R. Weldon was one of the first to take on this task. Darwin emphasized the role of individual variation that might confer an advantage in reproduction or survival to its carrier. Weldon made measurements of the shell size of the crab Carcinus moenas among young and adult crabs (Weldon, 1894–1895). By separating out changes that might be due to growth versus changes that were due to selective loss he made one o...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Comments from the Series Editor, John C. Avise
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Introduction
• Chapter One. 1859 And in the beginning
• Chapter Two. 1894 Measuring selection in nature
• Chapter Three. 1920 A theory of density-dependent population growth is formulated
• Chapter Four. 1928 Selection in age-structured populations
• Chapter Five. 1930 The fundamental theorem of natural selection
• Chapter Six. 1930 Evolution of mimicry
• Chapter Seven. 1930 Fluctuation in numbers and genotypes
• Chapter Eight. 1934 Competitive exclusion
• Chapter Nine. 1940 The common garden experiment
• Chapter Ten. 1943 Seasonal changes of gene regions in natural populations
• Chapter Eleven. 1947 The role of phenotypic plasticity as an agent for adaptation to variable environments is proposed
• Chapter Twelve. 1947 Measuring selection and drift in a natural population
• Chapter Thirteen. 1954 Cole's paradox
• Chapter Fourteen. 1954 Lack's principle
• Chapter Fifteen. 1956 Character displacement
• Chapter Sixteen. 1958 Niche partitioning by warbler birds
• Chapter Seventeen. 1961 Population regulation and genetic feedbacks
• Chapter Eighteen. 1962 Ecological measures of fitness
• Chapter Nineteen. 1962 Group selection
• Chapter Twenty. 1964 Community evolution
• Chapter Twenty One. 1964 Kin selection and the evolution of social behavior
• Chapter Twenty Two. 1965 Evolution of phenotypic plasticity in plants
• Chapter Twenty Three. 1965 Fitness estimation
• Chapter Twenty Four. 1966 The concept of energetic trade-offs
• Chapter Twenty Five. 1966 Evolution of demographic parameters
• Chapter Twenty Six. 1966 Optimal foraging based on time and energy
• Chapter Twenty Seven. 1966 Evolution of a plant animal mutualism
• Chapter Twenty Eight. 1967 Evolution following colonization
• Chapter Twenty Nine. 1968 Cole's paradox resolved by environmental variation
• Chapter Thirty. 1968 Evolution in changing environments
• Chapter Thirty One. 1969 The polygyny threshold model
• Chapter Thirty Two. 1970 Reproductive effort and the life history schedule
• Chapter Thirty Three. 1970 The price equation
• Chapter Thirty Four. 1971 Population genetic theory of density-dependent natural selection
• Chapter Thirty Five. 1971 The evolution of heavy metal tolerance
• Chapter Thirty Six. 1973 The red queen hypothesis
• Chapter Thirty Seven. 1973 The evolution of melanism
• Chapter Thirty Eight. 1975 Sex and evolution
• Chapter Thirty Nine. 1975 Genetics of mimicry
• Chapter Forty. 1976 Evolution of resource partitioning
• Chapter Forty One. 1977 Life history theory challanged
• Chapter Forty Two. 1977 Natural selection favors reduced variance in fitness
• Chapter Forty Three. 1978 Maintenance of protein polymorphisms in a variable environment
• Chapter Forty Four. 1979 A critique of the adaptationist program
• Chapter Forty Five. 1980 Evolution of philopatry
• Chapter Forty Six. 1981 Testing density-dependent naural selection
• Chapter Forty Seven. 1981 Evolution of population stability: Theory
• Chapter Forty Eight. 1982 Life history evolution in nature
• Chapter Forty Nine. 1982 Evolution of virulence
• Chapter Fifty. 1984 Evolution of age-specific patterns of survival and fecundity
• Chapter Fifty One. 1985 Evolution of phenotypic plasticity theory
• Chapter Fifty Two. 1985 Coevolution of bacteria and phage
• Chapter Fifty Three. 1986 Evolution of Darwin’s finches
• Chapter Fifty Four. 1986 Evolution across three trophic levels
• Chapter Fifty Five. 1988 Evolution of competitive ability
• Chapter Fifty Six. 1990 A predator-prey arms race
• Chapter Fifty Seven. 1990 Reproductive effort and the balance between egg number and egg size
• Chapter Fifty Eight. 1991 Experimental evolution of cooperation
• Chapter Fifty Nine. 1994 Experimental test of the role of natural selection in the process of character displacement
• Chapter Sixty. 1994 The geographic mosaic theory of coevolution
• Chapter Sixty One. 1996 Community evolution due to indirect effects
• Chapter Sixty Two. 1996 Tests of adaptive phenotypic plasticity in plants
• Chapter Sixty Three. 1997 Evolution of species′ range – theory
• Chapter Sixty Four. 2000 Evolution of population stability: Experiments
• Chapter Sixty Five. 2004 Coevolution over space and time
• Epilogue
• Appendix
• Index