1 Introduction
The generic terms crude oil (also referred to as petroleum) and natural gas apply to the mixture of liquids and gases, respectively, commonly associated with petroliferous (petroleum-producing, petroleum-containing) geologic formations (Speight, 2014a) and which has been extended to gases and liquids from the recently developed deep shale formations (Speight, 2013b).
Crude oil and natural gas are the most important raw materials consumed in modern society—they provide raw materials for the ubiquitous plastics and other products as well as fuels for energy, industry, heating, and transportation. From a chemical standpoint, natural gas and crude oil are a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds and nonhydrocarbon compounds with crude oil being much more complex than natural gas (Mokhatab et al., 2006; Speight, 2007, 2012a, 2014a). The fuels that are derived from these two natural products supply more than half of the world's total supply of energy. Gas (for gas burners and for the manufacture of petrochemicals), gasoline, kerosene, and diesel oil provide fuel for automobiles, tractors, trucks, aircraft, and ships (Speight, 2014a). In addition, fuel oil and natural gas are used to heat homes and commercial buildings, as well as to generate electricity.
Crude oil and natural gas are carbon-based resources. Therefore, the geochemical carbon cycle is also of interest to fossil fuel usage in terms of petroleum formation, use, and the buildup of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Thus, the more efficient use of natural gas and crude oil is of paramount importance and the technology involved in processing both feedstocks will supply the industrialized nations of the world for (at least) the next 50 years until suitable alternative forms of energy are readily available (Boyle, 1996; Ramage, 1997; Speight, 2011a,b,c).
In this context, it is relevant to introduce the term peak oil which refers to the maximum rate of oil production, after which the rate of production of this natural resources (in fact the rate of production of any natural resource) enters a terminal decline (Hubbert, 1956, 1962). Peak oil production usually occurs after approximately half of the recoverable oil in an oil reserve has been produced (i.e., extracted). Peaking means that the rate of world oil production cannot increase and that oil production will thereafter decrease with time; even if the demand for oil remains the same or increases. Following from this, the term peak energy is the point in time after which energy production declines and the production of energy from various energy sources is in decline. In fact, most oil-producing countries—including Indonesia, the United Kingdom, Norway, and the United States—have passed the peak crude oil production apex several years or decades ago. Their production declines have been offset by discoveries and production growth elsewhere in the world and the so-called peak energy precipice will be delayed by such discoveries as well as by further development or crude oil and natural gas resources that are held in tight formations and tight shale formations (Islam and Speight, 2016).
However, before progressing any further, a series of definitions are used to explain the terminology used in this book.
2 Definitions
The definitions of crude oil and natural gas have been varied and diverse and are the product of many years of the growth of the crude oil and natural gas processing industries. Of the many forms of the definitions that have been used not all have survived but the more common, as illustrated here, are used in this book. Also included for comparison are sources of gas—such as gas hydrates and other sources of gas—that will present an indication of future sources of gaseous energy.
2.1 Crude Oil
The term crude oil (and the equivalent term petroleum) covers a wide assortment of naturally occurring hydrocarbon-type liquids consisting of mixtures of hydrocarbons and nonhydrocarbon compounds containing variable amounts of sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen as well as heavy metals such as nickel and vanadium, which may vary widely in volatility, specific gravity, and viscosity along with varying physical properties such as API gravity and sulfur content (Tables 1.1 and 1.2) as well as being accompanied by variations in color that ranges from colorless to black—the lower API gravity crude oils are darker than the higher API gravity crude oils (Speight, 2012a, 2014a; US EIA, 2014). The metal-containing constituents, notably those compounds consisting of derivatives of vanadium and nickel with, on occasion iron and copper, usually occur in the more viscous crude oils in amounts up to several thousand parts per million and can have serious consequences for the equipment and catalysts used in processing of these feedstocks (Speight and Ozum, 2002; Parkash, 2003; Hsu and Robinson, 2006; Gary et al., 2007; Speight, 2014a). The presence of iron and copper has been subject to much speculation insofar as it is not clear if these two metals are naturally occurring in the crude oil or whether they are absorbed by the crude oil during recovery and transportation in metal pipelines.
Table 1.1
Selected Crude Oils Showing the Differences in API Gravity and Sulfur Content
Country | Crude Oil | API | Sulfur (%w/w) |
Abu Dhabi (UAE) | Abu Al Bu Khoosh | 31.6 | 2.00 |
Abu Dhabi (UAE) | Murban | 40.5 | 0.78 |
Angola | Cabinda | 31.7 | 0.17 |
Angola | Palanca | 40.1 | 0.11 |
Australia | Barrow Island | 37.3 | 0.05 |
Australia | Griffin | 55.0 | 0.03 |
Brazil | Garoupa | 30.0 | 0.68 |
Brazil | Sergipano Platforma | 38.4 | 0.19 |
Brunei | Champion Export | 23.9 | 0.12 |
Brunei | Seria | 40.5 | 0.06 |
Cameroon | Lokele | 20.7 | 0.46 |
Cameroon | Kole Marine | 32.6 | 0.33 |
Canada (Alberta) | Wainwright-Kinsella | 23.1 | 2.58 |
Canada (Alberta) | Rainbow | 40.7 | 0.50 |
China | Shengli | 24.2 | 1.00 |
China | Nanhai Light | 40.6 | 0.06 |
Dubai (UAE) | Fateh | 31.1 | 2.00 |
Dubai (UAE) | Margham Light | 50.3 | 0.04 |
Egypt | Ras Gharib | 21.5 | 3.64 |
Egypt | Gulf of Suez | 31.9 | 1.52 |
Gabon | Gamba | 31.4 | 0.09 |
Gabon | Rabi-Kounga | 33.5 | 0.07 |
Indonesia | Bima | 21.1 | 0.25 |
Indonesia | Kakap | 51.5 | 0.05 |
Iran | Aboozar (Ardeshir) | 26.9 | 2.48 |
Iran | Rostam | 35.9 | 1.55 |
Iraq | Basrah Heavy | 24.7 | 3.50 |
Iraq | Basrah Light | 33.7 | 1.95 |
Libya | Buri | 26.2 | 1.76 |
Libya | Bu Attifel | 43.3 | 0.04 |
Malaysia | Bintulu | 28.1 | 0.08 |
Malaysia | Dulang | 39.0 | 0.12 |
Mexico | Maya | 22.2 | 3.30 |
Mexico | Olmeca | 39.8 | 0.80 |
Nigeria | Bonny Medium | 25.2 | 0.23 |
Nigeria | Brass River | 42.8 | 0.06 |
North Sea (Norway) | Emerald | 22.0 | 0.75 |
North Sea (UK) | Innes | 45.7 | 0.13 |
Qatar | Qatar Marine | 36.0 | 1.42 |
Qatar | Dukhan (Qatar Land) | 40.9 | 1.27 |
Saudi Arabia | Arab Heavy (Safaniya) | 27.4 | 2.80 |
Saudi Arabia | Arab Extra Light (Berri) | 37.2 | 1.15 |
USA (California) | Huntington Beach | 20.7 | 1.38 |
USA (Michigan) | Lakehead Sweet | 47.0 | 0.31 |
Venezuela | Leona | 24.4 | 1.51 |
Venezuela | Oficina | 33.3 | 0.78 |
Table 1.2
API Gravity and Sulfur Content of Selected Heavy Oils