The Neuroscience of Cocaine

Mechanisms and Treatment

Victor R Preedy, Victor R. Preedy

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2017
• Print ISBN: 9780128037508
• eBook ISBN: 9780128037928
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Addiction in Psychology
• Index: Psychology

The Neuroscience of Cocaine: Mechanisms and Treatment explores the complex effects of this drug, addressing the neurobiology behind cocaine use and the psychosocial and behavioral factors that impact cocaine use and abuse. This book provides researchers with an up-to-date understanding of the mechanisms behind cocaine use, and aids them in deriving new pharmacological compounds and therapeutic regimens to treat dependency and withdrawal symptoms.Cocaine is one of the most highly abused illicit drugs worldwide and is frequently associated with other forms of drug addiction and misuse, but researchers are still struggling to understand cocaine's neuropharmacological profile and the mechanisms of its effects and manifestations at the cognitive level. Cessation of cocaine use can lead to numerous adverse withdrawal conditions, from the cellular and molecular level to the behavioral level of the individual user. Written by worldwide experts in cocaine addiction, this book assists neuroscientists and other addiction researchers in unraveling the many complex facets of cocaine use and abuse.- Contains in each chapter an abstract, key facts, mini dictionary of terms, and summary points to aid in understanding- Illustrated in full color- Provides unique full coverage of all aspects of cocaine and its related pathology- Provides researchers with an up-to-date understanding of the mechanisms behind cocaine use, and aids them in deriving new pharmacological compounds and therapeutic regimens to treat dependency and withdrawal symptoms

Part I

General Aspects, Features of Ill Health and Setting the Scene

Outline

Chapter 1 The Nervous System: A Starter Pack for Beginners

Chapter 2 Sex Differences in the Effects and Actions of Cocaine

Chapter 3 Contribution of Stress to Cocaine Addiction

Chapter 4 Strokes Associated With Cocaine Use

Chapter 5 Concentrations of Cocaine in Blood Samples From Impaired Drivers and Drug-Related Deaths

Chapter 6 Cocaine Postmortem Distribution in Brain

Chapter 7 Cocaine Adulterants and Effects on Monoamine Transporters

Chapter 8 Global Approaches in the Analysis of Cocaine-Induced Gene Expression

Chapter 1

The Nervous System

A Starter Pack for Beginners

R.A. Armstrong, Aston University, Birmingham, United Kingdom

Abstract

The human nervous system comprises the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves and is composed of several billion nerve cells or neurons. Specific populations of neurons, together with associated fiber tracts, are organized anatomically into pathways involved in sensory, motor, and cognitive function. A significant proportion of the brain carries out a sensory analysis of the world using information supplied from specialized receptors in skin, joints, ear, eye, nose, and tongue. This information is analyzed in primary sensory areas before being integrated into an image of the “state of the world.” This image is used in cognitive processing resulting in motor action and a behavioral response to incoming sensory data. This chapter provides a guide to the parts of the nervous system, the structure of sensory systems, and describes how this information is used in more complex brain functions.

Keywords

Nervous system; brain; anatomical pathway; neuron; sensory system; cognitive function; motor action

Summary Points

• The nervous system is the most complex body system, comprising a very large number of interconnected neurons.

• In association with white matter fiber tracts, networks of neurons are organized into anatomical pathways which are involved in sensory, motor, and cognitive functions.

• The whole of the nervous system develops from a narrow strip of ectoderm cells located on the surface of the human embryo which extends from the head to the tail of the embryo.

• A large part of the brain is concerned with the reception and analysis of sensory data and in the control of subsequent motor responses.

• The parietal lobe of the brain integrates data from the different senses and provides an image of the “state of the world.”

• Data concerning the state of the world are used in more complex cognitive processing in the temporal lobe, resulting ultimately in motor action and a change in behavior.

Key Facts

• The general function of the hippocampus is to act as a comparator, memory and spatial function playing important roles as part of this overall system.

• The entorhinal cortex receives information from all sensory systems via the temporal lobe, the latter acting as a data storage region.

• This information is transmitted to the dentate gyrus via the perforant path and also to the subiculum.

• The information circulates around the hippocampal circuit and results in specific items being selected that are important to a particular task.

• The essential function of the system is to compare actual with predicted stimuli and behavior is only controlled under specific conditions.

• For a “comparator” to function effectively, it must have access to current sensory events (the state of the world) and also to expected events generated by a “predictor.” Once a prediction has been made, it has to be tested against the world.

• Once tested, the comparator results in four possible outcomes: (1) in a new environment, data are gathered to make subsequent predictions possible; (2) predicted and actual events continue to agree resulting in no change of behavior; (3) a “mismatch” is detected between actual and predicted events resulting in inhibition of current motor behavior and new data gathering; and (4) discrepancy between actual and predicted events is resolved and control passes back to other systems.

List of Abbreviations

A astrocyte

BBB blood–brain barrier

CA cornu ammonis

CB cerebellum

CC corpus callosum

CG cingulate gyrus

Cl claustrum

CN caudate nucleus

CSF cerebral spinal fluid

DG dentate gyrus

EC external capsule

EnC entorhinal cortex

FL frontal lobe

GCL granule cell layer

HC hippocampus

H/E hematoxylin and eosin

HP hypothalamus

IC internal capsule

ITG inferior temporal gyrus

LF lateral fissure

LGN lateral geniculate nucleus

LHE hematoxylin and eosin/luxol fast blue

Me medulla

Mg microglia

ML molecular layer

MTG middle temporal gyrus

N neuron

OC occipital cortex

OG oligodendrocyte

P pons

PC parietal cortex

PCG precentral gyrus

PHG parahippocampal gyrus

PoCG post central gyrus

PrC Purkinje cell

Put putamen

STG superior temporal gyrus

SUB subiculum

Th thalamus

WM white matter

1.1 Introduction

The nervous system is the most complex of the systems of the human body and comprises the brain, spinal cord, and the cranial and peripheral nerves. It is composed of gray matter comprising many billions of cells or neurons, each with the capability of communicating with a large number of other cells (Nauta & Feirtag, 1986). It is the pattern of connections between these neurons which determines brain function and, ultimately, the intellectual ability and even the personality of an individual. In association with white matter fiber tracts, networks of neurons are organized anatomically into pathways which are involved in sensory, motor, and cognitive function (Diamond, Scheibel, & Elson, 1985; Haines, 1987; Moyer, 1980). This chapter provides an introduction to the anatomy of the nervous system including the sensory systems involved in skin sense, proprioception (“position sense”), vision, hearing, smell, and taste and also describes how this information is used in cognitive processing resulting in motor action and a behavioral response (Gray & McNaughton, 2000).

1.2 Development of the Brain

The nervous system develops from a narrow strip of ectoderm cells extending the length of the embryo. During development, this strip of cells gradually sinks into the embryo to form the “neural groove.” As the neural groove sinks further, its upper edges meet and fuse together to form a “neural tube.” With the exception of the head region, this neural tube develops into the spinal cord. Hence, dorsal neural tube cells develop processes that extend to the periphery of the embryo and will have a sensory function while ventral neural tube cells extending toward the developing muscles have a motor function.

At the head of the embryo the neural tube swells to form three regions, namely the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. Within the swollen portions, the cavity of the neural tube also expands to form larger ventricles which manufacture cerebral spinal fluid (CSF), a liquid which surrounds the brain providing protection against trauma. A pair of lateral swellings originate from the forebrain and develop into the cerebral hemispheres, the most dominant feature of the mature human brain. The neural tube also extends into these developing hemispheres to form the lateral ventricles. At the same time, the midbrain develops a series of small swellings on its dorsal surface which become the inferior and superior colliculi, regions important in hearing and vision, respectively, while the hindbrain differentiates into the pons, medulla, and cerebellum. In the human brain, the cerebral hemispheres continue their massive development. To accommodate the cerebral hemispheres within the limited space of the skull, they become bent forward so that in an individual standing upright, the original neural tube is vertical within the spinal cord but horizontal within the brain.

1.3 The Parts of the Brain

When the upper part of the skull is removed, the brain is seen to be protected by a thick, fibrous layer, the dura matter. Cutting open the dura matter exposes the two cerebral hemispheres with their characteristic folds (gyri) and fissures (sulci). Many important structures of the brain can be seen in two views of the cerebral hemispheres, namely the lateral and medial sagittal surfaces, the latter revealed by separating the two hemispheres and sectioning the midbrain and hindbrain.

1.3.1 The Lateral Surface

First, on the lateral surface (Fig. 1.1), anterior to the precentral gyrus (PCG), there is a large area of frontal lobe con...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• List of Contributors
• Preface
• Part I: General Aspects, Features of Ill Health and Setting the Scene
• Part II: Molecular Effects
• Part III: Cellular Effects
• Part IV: Regional, Structural, and Imaging Aspects
• Part V: Behavioral Aspects
• Part VI: Receptors, Transporters, and Neuropharmacology
• Part VII: Withdrawal and Abstinence
• Part VIII: Poly-Drug Use and Comorbidities
• Part IX: Assessment and Treatment Aspects
• Part X: Resources