Nanocomposite Structures and Dispersions

Ignac Capek

• Publisher: Elsevier
• Year: 2019
• eBook ISBN: 9780444637550
• Edition: 2
• Topic: Physical Sciences
• Subtopic: Physical & Theoretical Chemistry

Nanocomposite Structures and Dispersions deals with the preparation of gelled, branched and crosslinked nanostructured polymers in the solution free radical polymerization and controlled/living radical polymerization and polymer and composite nanoparticles and nanostructures in disperse systems, the kinetics of direct and inverse disperse polymerizations (microemulsion, miniemulsion, emulsion, dispersion and suspension polymerization), the bottom-up approach building of functionalized nanoparticles, modelling of radical microemulsion polymerization, the characterization of traditional and non-traditional polymer dispersions, the collective properties of nanomaterials and their (bio)applications.This book is designed to bridge that gap and offers several unique features. First, it is written as an introduction to and survey of nanomaterials with a careful balance between basics and advanced topics. Thus, it is suitable for both beginners and experts, including graduate and upper-level undergraduate students. Second, it strives to balance the colloidal aspects of nanomaterials with physical principles. Third, the book highlights nanomaterial based architectures including composite or hybrid conjugates rather than only isolated nanoparticles. A number of ligands have been utilized to biodecorate the polymer and composite nanocarriers. Finally, the book provides an in depth discussion of important examples of reaction mechanisms of bottom-up building of functionalized nanoparticles, or potential applications of nanoarchitectures, ranging from physical to chemical and biological systems.- Free radical (controlled) polymerization, branching, crosslinking and gelling- Kinetics and mechanism of polymer nanoparticles formation- Modelling of radical polymerization in disperse systems- Polymer, composite and metal nanoparticles, nanostructures and nanomaterials- Smart nanostructures, biodecorated particles, nanocarriers and therapeutics

1

Nanotechnology and nanomaterials

Abstract

Nanoscience and nanotechnology belong to the broad interdisciplinary area comprising polymer and metal particles, nanoelectrics, supramolecular and colloid chemistry, nanostructured materials, biochemistry and biology. Nanomaterials are implicated in several domains such as chemistry, electronics, high-density magnetic recording media, sensors, biotechnology, etc. Due to their extremely small size and large specific surface area, nanomaterials usually exhibit unusual physical and chemical properties compared to that of bulk materials. The “top-down approach miniaturization” is based on a progressive reduction of dimensions. The “bottom-up approach” on the contrary relies on the atom per atom, or molecule per molecule building of functionalized elements and their self-organization.

Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary field bringing together chemists, physicists, biologists, pharmacologists, physicians, clinicians, veterinarians and many other specialists. In chemistry, the range of sizes from a few nanometers to much less than 100 nm has historically been associated with colloids, micelles, polymer molecules, phase-separated regions in block copolymers, and similar structures—typically, very large molecules, or aggregates of many molecules. In physics and electrical engineering, nanoscience is most often associated with quantum behavior, and the behavior of electrons and photons in nanoscale structures. Biology and biochemistry also have a deep interest in nanostructures as components of the cell; many of the most interesting structures in biology—from DNA and viruses to subcellular organelles and gap junctions—can be considered as nanostructures.

The composition of nanomaterials may be of biologic or chemical origin. Biologic materials include DNA, phospholipids, lipids, lactic acid, dextran, chitosan, and albumin. Nanoscale devices and machines are either present in nature or must be synthesized starting from more simple components. In the nanoscale area, each device is made of a countable number of atoms (molecules). The miniaturization of components for the construction of useful nanodevices and nanomachines can be pursued by the top-down and bottom-up approaches. A particularly exciting class of such hybrid devices utilizes biomolecular motors, which can add active, chemically powered force generation and movement to the functionality of the device. Applications of nanodevices based on biomolecular motors have been explored for nanoscale transport systems (molecular shuttles), surface imaging, force measurements, single molecule manipulation, and lab-on-a-chip systems.

An alternative strategy for the formation of ordered nanomaterial arrays is the self-organization method based on biomolecular templates by direct or synergistic templating techniques. Another strategy is to utilize the advantages of self-organization processes by means of noncovalent interactions. Surface properties may be imparted to nanoparticles by coating them with various substances. Moreover, coating with polymers or antibodies, which bind specifically to a particular cell, can help to better achieve targeted drug delivery.

Keywords

Nanoscience; Nanotechnology; Nanomaterials; Polymer; Composite and metal nanoparticles

Chapter Outline

• 1.1 Introduction
• 1.2 Nanoscience and nanotechnology
• 1.3 Nanoparticles
• 1.4 Nanodevices
• 1.5 DNA-based smart nanostructures
• 1.6 Nanofabrication
• 1.7 Investigative tools
• 1.8 Nanoarchitectures
• 1.9 Nanobiotechnology
• 1.10 Conclusion
• References

Abbreviations

1D one dimensional

2D two dimensional

3D three dimensional

AFAM atomic force acoustic microscopy

AFM atomic force microscopes

AgNP silver nanoparticle

API active pharmaceutical ingredient

AuNP gold nanoparticle

BME biomolecular electronics

CFM chemical force microscopy

CMC critical micelle concentration

CNS central nervous system

CpG oligodeoxynucleotides

CS-AFM current sensing atomic force microscopy

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid

DPN din-pen nanolithography

dsDNA double-stranded DNA

E. coli Escherichia coli

E-beam electron beam

EFM electrical force microscopy

EM electromagnetic

EPR enhanced permeation and retention

EVOH ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer

Fab’ antibody fragment

FET field effect transistor

FFM friction force microscopy

FIA fluorescent immunoassays

FIB focused ion beam

FITC fluorescein isothiocyanate

GOx glucose oxidase

HRP horseradish peroxidase

HTL hole-transporting layer

IBD inflammatory bowel disease

IETS inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy

ITO indium tin oxide

LB Langmuir-Blodgett

LCD liquid-crystal display

LEC light-emitting electrochemical cell

LED light-emitting diode

LFM lateral force microscopy

LSP localized surface plasmons

MEMS micro-electrical-mechanical systems

MFM magnetic force microscopy

MF-STM magnetic force scanning tunneling

MiP microparticle

miRNA microRNA

MNP metal nanoparticle

MPC monolayer protected cluster

MPEG methoxy PEG

MRI magnetic resonance imaging

MST microsystems technologies, as known in Europe

MTs microtubules

NAD⁺ nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

nDSs nanochannel delivery systems

NEMS nanoelectromechanical system

NF-κB nuclear factor-κB

NIL nanoimprint-based lithography

NP nanoparticle

OLED organic light-emitting diode

PBG produce photonic bandgap

PCR polymerase chain reaction

PDMS poly(dimethylsiloxane)

PEDOT poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)

PEG poly(ethylene glycol)

PLA polylactide

PLED polymer-based LED

PLGA poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)

PMMA poly(methyl methacrylate)

PNP polymer NP

PSMA prostate-specific membrane antigen as a targeting agent

PSt polystyrene

PStS poly(styrene sullonate)

PU poly(urethane)

PUM polyurethane micelles

PVA polyvinyl alcohol

QD quantum dots

R&D research and development

RNA ribonucleic acid

RNAi RNA interference

RTG radioisotope thermoelectric generators

SAM self-assembled monolayer

SEM scanning electron microscopy

SERS surface-enhanced Raman scattering

SFM shear force microscopy

SiNP silica NP

siRNA small (or short) interfering RNA

SMOLED small-molecule OLED

SMS single-molecule spectroscopy

SNOM scanning near-field optical microscopy

SNP single-nucleotide polymorphism

SPIO superparamagnetic iron oxide

SPL scanning probe lithography

SPM scanning probe microscopy

SP-STM spin-polarized scanning tunneling microscopy

SSIL step-and-stamp imprint lithography

STM scanning tunneling microscopes

STS scanning tunneling spectroscopy

TEM transmission electron microscopy

TEs thermoelectrics

TM-AFM tapping mode atomic force microscopy

TNBS trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid

TNF antitumor necrosis factor

TPA two-photon absorption

UHV ultra-high vacuum

VEGF vascular endothelial growth factor

w/o water-in-oil

1.1 Introduction

During the past decade, due to the emergence of a new generation of high-technology materials, the number of research groups involved in nanomaterials has increased exponentially. Nanomaterials are implicated in several domains such as chemistry, electronics, high-density magnetic recording media, sensors, biotechnology, etc. Nano-sized materials have now emerged as one of the focal points of modern research. We are achieving an uncanny ability to design, synthesize, and manipulate structures at the nanoscale. Nanomaterials are expected to be used in various applications based on their excellent and unique optical, electrical, magnetic, catalytic, biological, or mechanical properties. Such properties originate from their finely tuned nanoarchitectures and nanostructures. However, the fabrication and analysis of nanomaterials remains challenging and, therefore, considerable and continuous efforts have been made to explore novel synthetic and analytical methods for nanoarchitectures and nanostructures by many researchers all over the world. The fascinating world of these nanomaterials and their manifold applications becomes part of our life.

Several important events have marked the nanotechnology story. At the beginning of the 1980s, scanning tunneling microscopes (STM) and atomic force microscopes (AFM) were invented providing thus the “experimental techniques, methods and approaches” required for nanostructure measurement and manipulation. Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) has opened up the new world of nanotechnology for observing and manipulating individual atoms and molecules on solid surfaces. Other techniques such as beam-probe techniques, mechanical-probe techniques and particle-trapping techniques were introduced to atom manipulation with wider controllability. In a parallel development, expansion of computational capability enabled sophisticated simulations of material behavior at the nanoscale. They stimulated the research with the vision of exciting new discoveries if one could fabricate materials and devices at the atomic/molecular scale. The starting research pointed out that a new class of miniaturized instrumentation would be needed to manipulate and measure the properties of these small “nano” structures. There is also the possibility that the unique properties of nanostructures will result in novel applications and devices. Another reason for the great popularity of this field is that phenomena occurring on this length scale are of interest to physicists, chemists, biologists, electrical and mechanical engineers, and computer scientists. A motivation in nanoscience is also to try to understand how materials behave when sample sizes are close to atomic dimensions [1].

Making and manipulating matter on the sub-100 nm length scale is a grand challenge for both scientists and engineers. From an engineering standpoint, the sub-100 nm scale is extraordinarily small, and many of the tools that are used routinely to do microfabrication cannot be used for nanofabrication. However, from the chemist's point of view, this length scale, especially above 10 nm, is extraordinarily large. Chemists are really “Angstrom-technologists,” not nanotechnologists. Even when they wo...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• Preface
• 1: Nanotechnology and nanomaterials
• 2: Solution radical polymerization
• 3: Preparation of polymer-based nanomaterials
• 4: Oil-in-water microemulsion polymerization
• 5: Modeling of MEP
• Index