HISTORY
The use of pathogenic agents as weapons has been documented for more than two millennia. The ancient Romans carried out biological warfare by putting carrion into the wells of their enemies to poison the water supply. Such crude biowarfare tactics continued well into the 20th century.3,4 During the 14th-century siege of Kaffa (now Feodossia, Ukraine), the attacking Tartar soldiers experienced an epidemic of bubonic plague. The Tartars capitalized on the devastating disease and used the bodies of plague victims as weapons. They catapulted their own soldiersā diseased bodies into the walled city of Kaffa in an attempt to inflict harm on their enemy and likely contributed to the European plague epidemic during the Middle Ages.5ā7 Smallpox and measles contained within blankets and clothing were used by the Conquistadors and British as biological weapons against Native Americans. It is believed that such tactics influenced the outcome of the French and Indian Wars.5,7 Plague was used as a weapon by the Japanese during World War II. Laboratory-raised fleas were allowed to feed on plague-infected rats. The fleas were then disseminated from airplanes over China.7,8 In 1993, the Aum Shinrikyo Cult (known for its sarin nerve gas attack in a Tokyo subway) attempted to spread anthrax in Tokyo from the rooftop of an eight-story building owned by the Cult. The purported attack did not cause any illness from the anthrax agent, because the strain Sterne (a vaccine strain) was used. It is believed that the Aum Shinrikyo Cult also dispersed botulinum toxin, Q fever, and spores from a poisonous mushroom, but all attacks failed.9ā11 In 1984, cult followers of Baghwan Sri Rajneesh attempted to affect the outcome of a local election in Dalles, Oregon. They attempted to incapacitate the population and prevent them from voting by successfully contaminating salad bars in 10 restaurants with Salmonella typhimurium; 751 people developed food poisoning. A Salmonella typhimurium strain found in a laboratory at the commune of the religious cult was indistinguishable from the strain from the outbreak.12 In 1996 in Dallas, Texas, there was a documented case of intentional Shigellosis contamination. Twelve people of the laboratory staff of St. Paul Medical Center hospital developed severe, acute diarrheal illness. Shigella dysenteriae type 2 was isolated from stool samples of some of the sick workers. All outbreak patients reported eating muffins or doughnuts in a break room. Shigella dysenteriae type 2, recovered from the patients, from an uneaten muffin, and from the medical laboratoryās stock strain were indistinguishable by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. A criminal investigation ensued focusing on a laboratory technician who was subsequently convicted on five felony assaults and falsifying laboratory documents.10,13
The few examples described above focus mostly on those agents that could cause harm to human targets (see CDC list).5 However, disruption of food sources and great economic upheaval could arise by targeting agriculture. U.S. commercial animal agriculture revolves around three commodities: cattle, swine, and poultry (i.e., chickens and turkeys). Sheep, goats, ducks, and other species may be considered commercially insignificant, but an attack on these could hurt smaller economic sectors and affect public confidence. While horses are not considered to be a domestic livestock industry by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), they do fulfill personal and recreational needs. Deer, elk, bison, and other wildlife species are also not considered domestic livestock but could become reservoirs for pathogens, and attacks on wildlife could affect the ecosystem. Fish and shellfish, which form a notable industry, are often not thought of as targets, but could be targets for an attack.
International lists of livestock diseases that pose the greatest threats are maintained by the International Organization of Epizootics (OIE).14 There are about 15 diseases on the OIE List A and a much larger number in List B. Blue-tongue, Newcastle disease, and vesicular stomatitis, which are on List A, occur naturally in the U.S. Terrorists and criminals have easier access to these and other animal pathogens, because they occur naturally. Some animal diseases are caused by zoonotic pathogens (i.e., causing disease in animals and humans). These include: Rift Valley Fever (Bunyaviridae), Glanders (Burkholderia mallei), and Q fever (Coxiella burnetii). Pathogens that reside in a broad range of host species can be more difficult to eradicate and enable access from a variety of reservoirs.
Livestock are highly vulnerable. One need only consider the most recent outbreak of Foot and Mouth disease in England to appreciate the impact of just a natural outbreak. The same or greater effect can be imagined with the use of a livestock-directed bioweapon. Animal pathogens are often highly contagious and can be dispersed without advanced technology; in addition, disease can spread rapidly, animal to animal. In the U.S., disease spread can be exacerbated because livestock are often transported in large numbers throughout the U.S.15 Historically, attacks have occurred against livestock. For example, during World War I, Glanders (Burkholderia mallei) was used by the Germans to infect Allied horses and mules. In fact, a laboratory was established in Chevy Chase, Maryland in 1916 to culture Glanders (and anthrax) and the live organisms were then provided to German agents to infect U.S. draft animals. They successfully infected a number of animals in the U.S., as well as in Europe.7,10,16 The former Soviet Union also used Glanders in the early 1980s during its war in Afghanistan.17,18 In 1952, the Mau Mau poisoned and killed some cattle at a British mission station in Kenya usin...