Exercise-Cognition Interaction

Neuroscience Perspectives

Terry McMorris

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2015
• Print ISBN: 9780128007785
• eBook ISBN: 9780128011485
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Cognitive Psychology & Cognition
• Index: Psychology

Exercise-Cognition Interaction: Neuroscience Perspectives is the only book on the market that examines the neuroscientific correlation between exercise and cognitive functioning. The upsurge in research in recent years has confirmed that cognitive-psychology theory cannot account for the effects of exercise on cognition, and both acute and chronic exercise effect neurochemical and psychophysiological changes in the brain that, in turn, affect cognitive functioning.This book provides an overview of the research into these effects, from theoretical research through current studies that emphasize neuroscientific theories and rationales. It addition, users will find a thorough examination of the effects of exercise interventions on cognitive functioning in special populations, including the elderly, children, and those suffering from a variety of diseases, including schizophrenia, diabetes, and an array of neurological disorders.With contributions from leading researchers in the field, this book will be the go-to resource for neuroscientists, psychologists, medical professionals, and other researchers who need an understanding of the role exercise plays in cognitive functioning.- Provides a comprehensive account of how exercise affects brain functioning, which in turn affects cognition- Covers both theory and empirical research- Presents a thorough examination of the effects of exercise interventions on cognitive functioning in special populations, including the elderly, children, and those suffering from a variety of diseases- Examines neurochemical, psychophysiological, and genetic factors- Covers acute and chronic exercise

Chapter 1

History of Research into the Acute Exercise–Cognition Interaction

A Cognitive Psychology Approach

Terry McMorris Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Chichester, Chichester, West Sussex, UK

Abstract

Arousal–performance theories suggest an inverted-U effect of acute exercise on cognition. Research shows little support for this. Moderate intensity appears to have a positive effect on speed of undertaking all cognitive tasks but especially working memory tasks. This would be as predicted by cognitive–energetic, arousal–performance theories. Results for cognition during heavy exercise are fairly equivocal, although speed of undertaking autonomous tasks is facilitated. Drive theory would predict this latter finding but the equivocal results for attention/perception and working memory tasks cannot be explained by cognitive–energetic, arousal–performance theories. This may be due to the link between exercise intensity and increases in stress level being too simplistic and limitations in the interpretation of how stress affects cognition; hence, the necessity to examine the acute exercise–cognition interaction from neuroscientific perspectives as well as cognitive psychology.

Keywords

Arousal; Automaticity; Cognitive–energetical theories; Inverted-U theory; Working memory

Introduction

In this chapter, we examine the development of theoretical underpinnings for an acute exercise effect on cognition, from the earliest research until the emergence of recent neuroscientific research. We also examine the extent to which empirical research supported the behavioral and cognitive rationales and how failure to provide strong support led to a revision of these theoretical underpinnings. The overall aim of writing this chapter is to provide the reader with an outline of the background of theory and research, which has led to the current study of the acute exercise–cognition interaction from a neuroscientific perspective.

Development of Theoretical Rationales

The earliest research was atheoretical (e.g., Gutin & Di Gennaro, 1968a; McAdam & Wang, 1967; Meyers, Zimmerli, Farr, & Baschnagel, 1969).It appears to have simply been down to the whims of the researchers. The first to provide a theoretical underpinning for hypothesizing that acute exercise would have an effect on cognition was Davey (1973). He saw exercise as being a stressor, which could affect arousal in the same way as other stressors, such as anxiety, temperature, and white noise. Davey, therefore, turned to Yerkes and Dodson’s (1908) arousal–performance theory to develop his hypotheses. Yerkes and Dodson claimed that when arousal is low, performance will be poor but, as arousal rises to a moderate level, performance will become optimal. However, if arousal continues to rise, performance will return to a level equal to that shown during low levels of arousal. When plotted graphically, performance demonstrates an inverted-U curve and, as a result, Yerkes and Dodson’s theory became known as inverted-U theory. Based on this, Davey claimed that at rest and during low-intensity exercise, cognitive performance would be poor. When exercise intensity rose to a moderate level, performance would be optimal, but further increases in exercise intensity would mean a return to a poor level of performance.

Yerkes and Dodson (1908) showed empirically, with mice, that task complexity acted as a moderator with regard to the purity of the inverted-U curve. They found that if a task was easy, the curve was skewed toward the higher end of the arousal continuum, but if the task was complex, it was skewed the other way. In other words, easy tasks require comparatively high levels of arousal for optimal performance, whereas complex tasks require comparatively low levels of arousal.

Inverted-U theory continues to play a major role as an underlying theory with regard to acute exercise–cognition research, but most cognitive psychologists also include adaptations of Yerkes and Dodson’s (1908) theory. Several (e.g., Allard, Brawley, Deakin, & Elliott, 1989; Fleury, Bard, & Carrière, 1981; Isaacs & Pohlman, 1991) have drawn on Easterbrook’s (1959) cue utilization theory. Easterbrook felt that Yerkes and Dodson’s theory failed to provide a rationale for how arousal would affect performance in an inverted-U fashion. Following a number of experiments into effects of arousal on dual task performance, Easterbrook claimed that increases in arousal from low to high levels results in a narrowing of focus of attention. He stated that when arousal level is low, the individual has too broad an attentional focus and attends to both relevant and irrelevant information; as a result performance is poor. As arousal rises, however, attention reaches an optimal level, when only task relevant cues are processed. This corresponds to the top of the inverted-U curve in Yerkes and Dodson’s theory. If arousal continues to rise, however, attention will narrow further and even relevant cues will be missed, hence a deterioration in performance.

Yerkes and Dodson’s (1908) and Easterbrook’s (1959) theories remained the most popular theories for researchers to use as the theoretical underpinnings for their hypotheses until the 1990s. At this time, first the Poitiers group (e.g., Arcelin, Delignières, & Brisswalter, 1998; Brisswalter, Arcelin, Audiffren, & Delignières, 1997; Collardeau, Brisswalter, & Audiffren, 2001; Delignières, Brisswalter, & Legros, 1994) and later ourselves (McMorris & Graydon, 1996a, 1996b, 1997; McMorris & Keen, 1994) turned to what some call allocatable resources theories but others c...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• Contributors
• Chapter 1. History of Research into the Acute Exercise–Cognition Interaction: A Cognitive Psychology Approach
• Chapter 2. The History of Research on Chronic Physical Activity and Cognitive Performance
• Chapter 3. Animal Models of Exercise–Brain Interactions
• Chapter 4. Beyond the Catecholamines Hypothesis for an Acute Exercise–Cognition Interaction: A Neurochemical Perspective
• Chapter 5. Acute Exercise and Event-Related Potential: Current Status and Future Prospects
• Chapter 6. Acute Exercise and Cognition: Effects of Cerebral Oxygenation and Blood Flow
• Chapter 7. The Reticular-Activating Hypofrontality (RAH) Model of Acute Exercise: Current Data and Future Perspectives
• Chapter 8. Chronic Exercise and Cognition in Humans: A Review of the Evidence for a Neurochemical Basis
• Chapter 9. The Chronic Exercise–Cognition Interaction: fMRI Research
• Chapter 10. Physical Activity, Fitness, and Cognition: Insights from Neuroelectric Studies
• Chapter 11. Effects of Athletic Fitness on the Exercise–Cognition Interaction
• Chapter 12. “Cogito ergo sum” or “ambulo ergo sum”? New Perspectives in Developmental Exercise and Cognition Research
• Chapter 13. Acute Exercise and Cognition in Children and Adolescents: The Roles of Testosterone and Cortisol
• Chapter 14. The Chronic Exercise–Cognition Interaction in Older Adults
• Chapter 15. The Chronic Exercise–Cognition Interaction and Parkinson Disease
• Chapter 16. The Chronic Exercise–Cognition Interaction and Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease
• Chapter 17. The Chronic Exercise–Cognition Interaction and Diabetes
• Chapter 18. The Exercise–Cognition Interaction and ADHD
• Chapter 19. Cognitive Impairment in Breast Cancer Survivors: The Protective Role of Physical Activity, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, and Exercise Training
• Chapter 20. Physical Activity and Cognition in Older Adults with Heart Failure
• Chapter 21. The Effect of Regular Exercise on Cognition in Special Populations of Children: Overweight and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
• Chapter 22. Exercise–Cognition Interaction: State of the Art and Future Research
• Index