Biosensors and Bioelectronics

Chandran Karunakaran, Kalpana Bhargava, Robson Benjamin, CHANDRAN KARUNAKARAN, KALPANA BHARGAVA, ROBSON BENJAMIN

• Publisher: Elsevier
• Year: 2015
• Print ISBN: 9780128031001
• eBook ISBN: 9780128031018
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Biotechnology
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Biosensors and Bioelectronics presents the rapidly evolving methodologies that are relevant to biosensors and bioelectronics fabrication and characterization. The book provides a comprehensive understanding of biosensor functionality, and is an interdisciplinary reference that includes a range of interwoven contributing subjects, including electrochemistry, nanoparticles, and conducting polymers.Authored by a team of bioinstrumentation experts, this book serves as a blueprint for performing advanced fabrication and characterization of sensor systems—arming readers with an application-based reference that enriches the implementation of the most advanced technologies in the field.- Features descriptions of functionalized nanocomposite materials and carbon fibre electrode-based biosensors for field and in vivo applications- Presents a range of interwoven contributing subjects, including electrochemistry, nanoparticles, and conducting polymers- Includes more than 70 figures and illustrations that enhance key concepts and aid in retention- Ideal reference for those studying bioreceptors, transducers, bioinstrumentation, nanomaterials, immunosensors, nanotubes, nanoparticles, and electrostatic interactions- Authored by a collaborative team of scientists with more than 50 years of experienced in field research and instruction combined

Chapter 1

Introduction to Biosensors

Chandran Karunakaran¹, Raju Rajkumar¹, and Kalpana Bhargava^{2 1}Biomedical Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, VHNSN College (Autonomous), Virudhunagar, Tamil Nadu, India ²Peptide and Proteomics Division, Defence Institute of Physiology and Allied Sciences (DIPAS), Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Delhi, India

Abstract

This chapter gives a brief introduction to biosensors, including principles and components. The classification of biosensors based on bioreceptors such as enzymes, antibodies (immunosensors), DNA (genosensors), and microbial and aptasensors is discussed. The high specificity of these bioreceptors is attributed to molecular recognition phenomena. Molecular-imprinted polymers mimicking bioreceptors due to complementary interactions and geometries are also presented. In addition, there are different types of biosensors based on transducers, viz., optical biosensors involve fluorescence, chemiluminescence, and surface plasmon resonance measurements. Furthermore, piezoelectric, magnetoelastic, field effect transistor (FET), calorimetric, and noninvasive biosensors are outlined. Among the biosensors, electrochemical biosensors are cost effective, miniaturized, and used for point-of-care applications. So, the chapter discusses the theory and methods of electrochemical biosensors in detail. In addition, the electroanalytical characteristics of biosensors and membranes used for selectivity of biosensors are explained. Cell fabrication techniques like screen printing, liquid handling, and photolithographic techniques are also highlighted.

Keywords

Biosensors; Field effect transistor; Genosensor; Immunosensor; Molecular recognition; Transducers

Contents

1.1 Introduction 2

1.2 Basic principle of a biosensor 3

1.3 Components of a biosensor 3

1.3.1 Bioreceptors 4

1.3.1.1 Enzyme bioreceptors: biosensors 5

1.3.1.2 Antibody bioreceptor: immunosensors 6

1.3.1.3 Nucleic acid bioreceptors 7

1.3.1.4 Aptasensors 11

1.3.1.5 Microbial biosensors 16

1.4 Molecular recognition 17

1.4.1 Binding forces and interactions involved in molecular recognition 18

1.4.1.1 Electrostatic and hydrophobic interaction 18

1.4.1.2 Covalent bonding 19

1.4.1.3 Hydrogen bonding 19

1.4.1.4 Specific interaction 19

1.4.1.5 Molecular recognition between biotin and avidin 19

1.4.1.6 Molecular recognition between protein A/G and antibody 20

1.4.2 Molecular recognition based on geometry 20

1.4.2.1 Molecular recognition by imprinting 20

1.4.2.2 Molecular imprinting process 21

1.4.3 Types of molecular recognition 23

1.4.3.1 Static molecular recognition 23

1.4.3.2 Dynamic molecular recognition 23

1.5 Classification of biosensors based on transducers 23

1.5.1 Optical detection methods 24

1.5.2 Optical biosensors 25

1.5.3 Optical label-free biosensor 25

1.5.3.1 Surface plasmon resonance-based biosensors 25

1.5.4 Fluorescence-based biosensors 28

1.5.5 Chemiluminescence-based biosensors 31

1.6 Piezoelectric biosensors 32

1.7 Magnetoelastic biosensors 35

1.8 Field effect transistor-based biosensor 36

1.9 Calorimetric biosensor 38

1.10 Noninvasive biosensors 38

1.10.1 Saliva-based sensors 39

1.10.2 Tear-based sensors 40

1.10.3 Sweat-based sensors 40

1.10.4 Breath sensors 40

1.11 Electrochemical biosensors 42

1.11.1 Introduction 42

1.11.2 Principle of electrochemical biosensors 42

1.11.3 Electrochemical cell 42

1.11.4 Microfluidic electrochemical cell 45

1.11.5 Lab-on-a-chip 45

1.12 Various electrochemical techniques 46

1.12.1 Amperometric transducers 46

1.12.2 Voltammetric transducers 46

1.12.2.1 Fundamentals of cyclic voltammetry 52

1.12.3 Conductometric transducers 55

1.12.4 Impedimetric transducers 55

1.12.4.1 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy 56

1.12.5 Potentiometric transducers 58

1.13 Electroanalytical characteristics of biosensors 58

1.14 Membranes used in biosensors for selectivity 60

1.14.1 Ion-selective membranes 60

1.14.2 Nafion and cellulose acetate membranes 60

1.15 Biosensor electrode fabrication techniques 61

1.15.1 Screen Printing 61

1.15.2 Liquid-handling techniques 63

1.15.3 Photolithographic techniques 65

References 66

1.1. Introduction

Bioelectronics deals with the application of the principles of electronics to biology and medicine. Biosensor is a special type of bioelectronic device commonly used in bioanalysis. A sensor can be viewed as the “primary element of a measurement chain, which converts the input variable into a signal suitable for measurement.” Over the past decade, many important technological advances have provided us with the tools and materials needed to construct biosensor devices. Since the invention of the Clark oxygen electrode sensor, there have been many improvements in sensitivity, selectivity, and multiplexing capacity of modern biosensors. Biosensor can be defined as a compact analytical device incorporating a biological or biologically derived sensing element either integrated within or intimately associated with a physicochemical transducer. Two fundamental operating principles of a biosensor are “biological recognition” and “sensing.” Therefore, a biosensor can be generally defined as a device that consists of three basic components connected in series: (1) a biological recognition system, often called a bioreceptor, (2) a transducer, and (3) microelectronics. The basic principle of a biosensor is to detect this molecular recognition and to transform it into another type of signal using a transducer. The main purpose of the recognition system is to provide the sensor with a high degree of selectivity for the analyte to be measured. The interaction of the analyte with the bioreceptor is designed to produce an effect measured by the transducer, which converts the information into a measurable effect such as an electrical/optical signal. According to IUPAC recommendations 1999, a biosensor is an independently integrated receptor transducer device, which is capable of providing selective quantitative or semiquantitative analytical information using a biological recognition element (Thévenot et al., 1999). The purpose of a biosensor is to provide rapid, real-time, accurate, and reliable information about the analyte of interrogation. Ideally, it is a device that is capable of responding continuously, reversibly, and does not perturb the sample. Biosensors have been envisioned to play a significant analytical role in medicine, agriculture, food safety, bioprocessing, environmental and industrial monitoring (Luong et al., 2008).

1.2. Basic principle of a biosensor

The term biosensor is short for biological sensor and is a device made up of a transducer and a biological element that may be an enzyme, an antibody, or a nucleic acid. The biological element or bioelement interacts with the analyte being tested and the biological response is converted into an electrical signal by the transducer. Every biosensor has a biological component that acts as the sensor and an electronic component that detects and transmits the signal. In other words, the biological material is immobilized and a contact is made between the immobilized biological material and the transducer. The analyte binds to the biological material to form a bound analyte, which in turn produces the electronic response that can be measured. Sometimes the analyte is converted to a product that could be associated with the release of heat, gas (oxygen), electrons, or hydrogen ions. The transducer the...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• Contributors
• Preface
• Chapter 1. Introduction to Biosensors
• Chapter 2. Nanocomposite Matrix Functionalization for Biosensors
• Chapter 3. Enzymatic Biosensors
• Chapter 4. Immunosensors
• Chapter 5. Instrumentation
• Index