Comparative Osteology

A Laboratory and Field Guide of Common North American Animals

Bradley Adams, Pam Crabtree

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2011
• Print ISBN: 9780123884374
• eBook ISBN: 9780123884404
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Pathology
• Index: Social Sciences

In the forensic context it is quite common for nonhuman bones to be confused with human remains and end up in the medical examiner or coroner system. It is also quite common for skeletal remains (both human and nonhuman) to be discovered in archaeological contexts. While the difference between human and nonhuman bones is often very striking, it can also be quite subtle. Fragmentation only compounds the problem. The ability to differentiate between human and nonhuman bones is dependent on the training of the analyst and the available reference and/or comparative material.Comparative Osteology is a photographic atlas of common North American animal bones designed for use as a laboratory and field guide by the forensic scientist or archaeologist. The intent of the guide is not to be inclusive of all animals, but rather to present some of the most common species which also have the highest likelihood of being potentially confused with human remains.- An affordably priced, compact laboratory/field manual, comparing human and nonhuman bones- Contains almost 600 high-quality black and white images and diagrams, including inch and centimeter scales with each photograph- Written by the foremost forensic scientists with decades of experience in the laboratory and as expert witnesses- An additional Companion Web site hosts images from the volume the reader can magnify and zoom into to see specific landmarks and features on bones http://booksite.academicpress.com/9780123884374

Chapter 1

Introduction, Scope of Book, and Credits

Publisher Summary

Archaeologists and forensic anthropologists are often called on to distinguish the remains of adult and juvenile humans from those of other vertebrates. This chapter helps experienced osteologists distinguish human skeletal remains from those of other common North American mammals and birds. In addition to adult and juvenile human skeletons, it illustrates the skeletons of the most common Old World domestic animals and birds (cattle, horse, sheep, goat, pig, dog, cat, rabbit, turkey, duck, and chicken) as well as wild mammals that are frequently recovered from archaeological and forensic contexts in eastern North America (bear, white-tailed deer, raccoon, and opossum).

archaeology; forensic anthropology; Old World domesticates; North American mammals; skeletal remains; osteology

Archaeologists and forensic anthropologists are often called on to distinguish the remains of adult and juvenile humans from those of other vertebrates. This guide is designed as an aid to help experienced osteologists distinguish human skeletal remains from those of other common North American mammals and birds. In addition to adult and juvenile human skeletons, we have chosen to illustrate the skeletons of the most common Old World domestic animals and birds (cattle, horse, sheep, goat, pig, dog, cat, rabbit, turkey, duck, and chicken) as well as wild mammals that are frequently recovered from archaeological and forensic contexts in eastern North America (bear, white-tailed deer, raccoon, and opossum).

Regardless of the context (forensic or archaeological), the correct identification of human and non-human remains is a very serious issue in osteological analyses. While the difference between various species is often very striking, it can also be quite subtle (Figures 1-01 and 1-02). Case studies and textbooks have highlighted similarities between some species, for example the hand and foot bones (metacarpals and metatarsals) of the human hand and the bear paw, in the forensic realm (Byers 2005; Owsley and Mann 1990; Stewart 1979; Ubelaker 1989). These comparisons between the human and bear are also presented in Chapter 10 of this book. Sometimes the morphological similarities between species are quite unusual and counterintuitive. For example, there is a remarkable correspondence between the adult human clavicle and the adult alligator femur (Figure 1-03).

Figure 1-01 Comparison of anterior/cranial views of left femora from a newborn human (A), chicken (B), and adult cat (C).

Figure 1-02 Posterior views of a newborn human left humerus (A) and femur (B) compared with caudal views of a fetal deer left humerus (C) and femur (D).

Figure 1-03 Comparison of an adult human left clavicle (A) with a crocodile’s (Crocodylus acutus) right femur (B) and an alligator’s (Alligator mississippiensis) right femur (C). Note the similar morphology of the human and non-human elements.

The goal of this book is to create a comprehensive photographic guide for use by experienced archaeologists and forensic scientists to distinguish human remains from a range of common animal species. The first part of the atlas (Chapters 2–6) focuses on specific skeletal elements including crania, humeri, radii/ulnae, femora, and tibiae. The next 17 chapters (7–23) are organized by species. Chapter 7 includes selected elements pertaining to humans (Homo sapiens), both newborn human bones and adult bones. For the following chapters, the non-human species have been photographed alongside their human counterparts to allow easy comparison. The larger mammal species are compared to an adult human skeleton, while the smaller mammal, bird, and reptile species are compared to a newborn human skeleton. We have chosen to photograph the Old World domesticates – cow (Bos taurus for cranial material and Bos indicus for postcranial material), sheep (Ovis aries), goat (Capra hircus), horse (Equus caballus), and pig (Sus scrofa) – since these animals are frequently found on historic archaeological sites in North America, and are commonly recovered from Neolithic and later sites in the eastern hemisphere. Furthermore, they are also common in modern contexts and could easily end up being submitted as a forensic case.

The atlas includes three domestic bird species; two of them, chicken (Gallus gallus) and duck (Anas platyrhynchos), were initially domesticated in the eastern hemisphere, while the third, turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), was first domesticated by Native Americans. We have also chosen to illustrate a range of North American wild mammals, including many that were frequently hunted by Native Americans in pre-Columbian and colonial times. These include black bear (Ursus americanus), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), raccoon (Procyon lotor), and opossum (Didelphis virginiana). We have also included two species of rabbit. The smaller is the native wild rabbit or cotton-tail (Sylvilagus carolinensis), while the larger is a domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cunniculus) that is of European origin. Commensal species are frequently found in historic-period archaeological sites, and we have illustrated two of the most common: dog (Canis familiaris) and cat (Felis catus). We have also included a chapter of miscellaneous photographs (Chapter 23). In this chapter various views are presented of infant and adult human skeletons, and of selected comparisons between human and red fox (Vulpes vulpes), bobcat (Lynx rufus), rat (Rattus norvigecus), and snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina). The snapping turtle is the only reptile that is included as many of the bones are distinctive in shape and they are commonly recovered from North American archaeological sites.

Most archaeological faunal remains are the leftovers from prehistoric and historic meals. Many animal bones show traces of butchery that reveal the ways in which the carcass was dismembered. In this atlas we have illustrated a range of different butchery marks and techniques (Chapter 24), including both prehistoric cut marks made with stone tools and historic cut marks made with cleavers and saws. We have also included examples of sawn and butchered faunal bones, along with schematic diagrams of modern, commercial butchery patterns. Since bone was a common raw material throughout antiquity and up until the early twentieth century, we have also illustrated a number of examples of worked bone artifacts. Finally, knife cuts and saw marks in bone are not unique to non-human remains. There are numerous cases each year of intentional body mutilation using knives and/or saws. In cases of human dismemberment (usually implying sawing through bones) or disarticulation (usually implying separation between joints) it is quite possible that a badly decomposed or skeletonized human body portion may appear non-human to the untrained eye. A forensic example of postmortem human dismemberment is presented in Chapter 24 to show the similarity of tool mark evidence in human and non-human remains.

The ability to differentiate between human and non-human bones, both complete and fragmentary, is dependent on the training of the analyst and the available reference and/or comparative material. It is truly a skill that requires years of training and experience and is not something that can be gleaned entirely from books. There is no substitute for coursework and training in osteology with actual skeletal material in order to appreciate the range of variation within all animal species. An experienced osteologist should always be consulted for confirmation of element type and species if there is any doubt.

Archaeological Context

Animal bones have played critical roles in archaeological interpretation for more than 150 years of scientific endeavor. The discovery of the bones of extinct animals in association with simple chipped stone tools in sites in France and Britain helped to establish the antiquity of the human presence in Europe and to overthrow the traditional 6000-year biblical chronology for human life on earth. Faunal remains have also played a crucial role in the reconstruction of early human subsistence practices, in the study of animal domestication in both the eastern hemisphere and the Americas, and in the analysis of the ways in which historic cities were provisioned with food. Large numbers of animal bones are often recovered from archaeological sites, and these bones can be used to study past hunting practices, animal husbandry patterns, and diet. In order to use animal bones in archaeological interpretation, zooarchaeologists (archaeologists who specialize in the study of faunal remains) must be able to identify the bones, determine sex and age at death when possible, and examine the bones for evidence of butchery marks and traces of bone working.

While archaeologists expect to find human remains in cemeteries, human bones are often found in other contexts. For example, two adult human burials and the remains of several infants were unexpectedly recovered from the habitation area of the early Anglo-Saxon village site of West Stow in eastern England (West 1985: 58–59). This was the case even though the settlement site was associated with a nearby contemporary cemetery. In another example, at the late Neolithic site of Hougang near Anyang in China, burials of infants in pits or urns were associated with house construction activities (Chang 1986: 270). In short, zooarchaeologists and physical anthropologists must be able to confidently identify both animal bones and human remains in order to accurately interpret past cultures.

The first step in the analysis of animal bones recovered from archaeological sites is the careful identification of both body part and animal species. Precise identification requires a good comparative collection of modern specimens whose species, sex, and age are well documented. However, a comparative collection must be supplemented by identification guides and atlases that can help the researcher distinguish between different species. Most zooarchaeological identification guides focus solely on non-human species (e.g., Brown and Gustafson 19...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• Chapter 1. Introduction, Scope of Book, and Credits
• Chapter 2. Crania
• Chapter 3. Humeri
• Chapter 4. Radii and Ulnae
• Chapter 5. Femora
• Chapter 6. Tibiae
• Chapter 7. Human (Homo sapiens)
• Chapter 8. Horse (Equus caballus)
• Chapter 9. Cow (Bos taurus and Bos indicus)
• Chapter 10. Bear (Ursus americanus)
• Chapter 11. Deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
• Chapter 12. Pig (Sus scrofa)
• Chapter 13. Goat (Capra hircus)
• Chapter 14. Sheep (Ovis aries)
• Chapter 15. Dog (Canis familiaris)
• Chapter 16. Raccoon (Procyon lotor)
• Chapter 17. Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)
• Chapter 18. Cat (Felis catus)
• Chapter 19. Rabbit (Oryctolagus cunniculus and Sylvilagus carolinensis)
• Chapter 20. Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo)
• Chapter 21. Duck (Anas platyrhynchos)
• Chapter 22. Chicken (Gallus gallus)
• Chapter 23. Miscellaneous
• Chapter 24. Traces of Butchery and Bone Working
• References
• Index