Using Network and Mobile Technology to Bridge Formal and Informal Learning

Guglielmo Trentin, Manuela Repetto, Guglielmo Trentin, Manuela Repetto

• Publisher: Chandos Publishing
• Year: 2013
• ISBN:
  9781780633626
• Topic: Betriebswirtschaft
• Subtopic: Business Intelligence

An ever-widening gap exists between how students and schools use communication technology. Using Network and Mobile Technology to Bridge Formal and Informal Learning introduces new methods (inspired by 'pedagogy 2.0') of harnessing the potential of communication technologies for teaching and learning. This book considers how attitudes towards network and mobile technology (NMT) gained outside the school can be shunted into new educational paradigms combining formal and informal learning processes. It begins with an overview of these paradigms, and their sustainability. It then considers the pedagogical dimension of formal/informal integration through NMT, moving on to teachers' professional development. Next, the organizational development of schools in the context of formal and informal learning is detailed. Finally, the book covers the role of technologies supporting formal/informal integration into subject-oriented education.

• Includes a framework for the sustainability of new educational paradigms based on the combination of formal and informal learning processes supported by network and mobile technology (NMT)
• Provides a series of recommendations on how to use attitudes towards NMT gained outside the school to integrate formal and informal learning
• Gives a teacher training approach on how to use network and mobile technology-based informal learning to enhance formal learning pathways

1

Tapping the motivational potential of mobile handhelds: defining the research agenda

Cathy Tran, Mark Warschauer and AnneMarie M. Conley

Abstract:

As mobile technology becomes increasingly prevalent, educators are looking for ways to tap its educational potential. This chapter argues that one of the biggest strengths of handheld mobile devices is their potential to increase motivation for learning. Elements such as their small size, geolocation awareness, instant information access and tactile features contribute to a portable and personal experience that has the potential to motivate learners. The chapter makes the link between motivation and technology by first reviewing existing literature on the motivational implications of educational technology in general and then discussing how the unique features of mobile handhelds may further increase motivation for learning. In defining handhelds, we exclude laptops and refer to smaller devices such as smartphones and tablets. Keeping with the theme of this volume, the chapter then considers both formal and informal environments as it discusses a research agenda and methodological considerations for empirically exploring the relationship between mobile use and learner motivation.

Keywords

motivation

handheld technology

self-determination theory

embodied cognition

situated learning

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Christine Capota, Arena Chang, Chris Dede, Stephanie Reich, Teomara Rutherford, Katerina Schenke and Adam Sheppard for their feedback on earlier drafts of this chapter.

Introduction

This chapter sets forth a proposition that there is promising untapped potential for applying motivation theories to learning with handhelds. Part of this optimism stems from the growing literature on how games motivate goal-directed behaviour (see discussion in Gee, 2003; Przybylski et al., 2010). Every day, about 30 million players of the mobile app Angry Birds invest 5 million hours in launching birds at towers of bricks and rocks in an effort to destroy pigs (Rovio, 2011), and more than 30 million players harvest their crops in the social network game Farmville (Cashmore, 2010). When people are asked why they sacrifice other leisure, and perhaps non-leisure, activities to engage in such games, the immediate and most obvious response is simply because they are fun. Unpacking what makes games fun can help in the design of mobile technology that fosters highly-motivated learning.

The increasing prevalence of mobile technology is evident in the statistics: among 8 to 18-year-olds between 2004 and 2009, cell-phone ownership increased from 39 per cent to 66 per cent (Rideout et al., 2010). Nine out of ten 18 to 29-year-olds in the USA own a cell phone, and among those owners, 65 per cent access the internet on their mobile devices (Smith, 2010). Cell phones have evolved to be more than just a tool to talk, as young people now spend more time listening to music, watching television and playing games on their cell phones than they spend talking on them (Rideout et al., 2010). With the surge in ownership of tablets, educators are, more than ever, looking for ways to integrate mobile devices in the design of learning environments. What is missing from this integration, however, is a learning theory that is specific to mobile technologies and will allow for the effective design of educational environments with mobile handhelds. The potential for mobile handhelds to contribute to lifelong, contextualised learning rests on the establishment of principles that highlight and exploit the distinctive features of those devices, yet the formation of these principles is still in its infancy (Shuler, 2009).

A theoretical model of motivation and mobiles can draw heavily on psychological theories of motivation. While there are clear developmental considerations, this chapter focuses on components and processes that are relevant across the lifespan. In defining mobile handhelds, we exclude laptops and refer to devices that can be used on the go without sitting down, such as smartphones and tablets. Their small size, cordless nature, geolocation awareness, instant information access and tactile features (e.g. touchscreens, vibrations) contribute to a portable and personal experience that has the potential to motivate learners and allow them to build their knowledge across formal and informal settings. Motivation is a worthwhile construct to target as some scholars argue that motivational factors play a larger role than academic performance in predicting continued learning. For instance, motivation for learning psychology was more predictive of subsequent course taking and majoring in psychology over a seven-year span than were grades from an introductory college psychology course (Harackiewicz et al., 2002). Similar patterns have been found for middle school and high school students (Harackiewicz et al., 2002; Hidi, 1990; Hidi and Harackiewicz, 2000; Hidi and Renninger, 2006). Although research on motivational theories and their applications to classroom education has generated thousands of journal articles, there is limited empirical evidence about whether these theories apply equally well in the context of learning with handhelds.

Before delving further into the discussion of the integration of motivational theories and learning with handhelds, we first need to clarify what we mean by the term ‘motivation’. Motivation is ‘the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained’ (Pintrich and Schunk, 2002: 5). Put simply, it is what influences individuals to take action and keep at it when the going gets rough. Motivation is a multifaceted construct as there are many factors that move people; for instance, it may be personal interest, a bribe, or a desire to impress others. As such, motivation can be internal (intrinsic motivation) or it can be externally pressured (extrinsic motivation). Compared with those pursuing an activity for external rewards like money, research has shown that intrinsically motivated individuals act more creatively, enjoy the activity more, and process information more carefully and completely (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Accordingly, this chapter focuses on how mobile handhelds can increase internal or intrinsic motivation and adopts the perspective of self-determination theory (SDT), which posits that intrinsic motivation arises when learners’ needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness are met (Deci and Ryan, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000). That is, to be motivated, people need to feel that they are: (1) capable of understanding the presented material, (2) in control of their environment, and (3) socially connected. While we highlight SDT, other motivational theories have also been applied to the design of educational technology. For example, expectancy-value theory (e.g. Eccles, 1987, 1993; Eccles et al., 1989) influenced the design of a mathematical game to encourage students to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (Chen et al., in press; Tran et al., 2012). Achievement goal theory (Pintrich et al., 2003) was used to understand the role of achievement badges in a robotics program (Abramovich et al., 2011). A review article by Pintrich (2003) details these motivational theories and other prominent ones that have potential applications to the design of educational technology.

SDT is particularly applicable to the study of learning with mobile handhelds because their use is often driven by intrinsic motivation as people typically engage with them by choice. Handhelds include portable and personal features that are well suited to address the need for autonomy, competence and relatedness. Portable features stem from the cordless nature and small size of cell phones as they fit snugly inside pockets, allowing for the digitally-tethered life. This constant access eliminates the constraint of being able to access data only at a certain location such as a library or desktop computer, while cloud computing allows for personal data to transfer seamlessly across desktops and mobile handhelds. While desktop computers have advantages in some situations, such as when a group explores a large dataset together on a screen, mobile handhelds are particularly suitable for informal environments and learning on the go. Features like geolocation awareness take advantage of the portable nature by embedding geotags to alert users of potential details of interest in their geographical vicinity.

Personal features that allow mobile handhelds to be responsive by touch and voice have been enhanced by recent technological developments. Some devices react to shaking, rotating and tilting. In addition, advanced voice features are contributing to the role of handhelds as personal assistants. These portable and personal features can satisfy the three SDT needs to contribute to inherently enjoyable activities that are therefore intrinsically motivating. Using handheld devices to address the psychological needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness can foster sustained engagement and positive learning outcomes for both children and adults. We discuss below how a motivation theory maps onto educational technology and then propose an agenda for investigating handhelds and motivation for learning by discussing future research questions and methodological considerations for empirically exploring the relation between mobile use and learner motivation in both formal and informal environments.

Educational technology and motivation: past, present and future

Rapid advances in technology have historically brought with them new tools to increase learner motivation. When educational videos entered the market, at-home learners had autonomy over the pace of instruction as they could pause, rewind or fast-forward a tape. With the advent of personal computers, software provided programs that allowed for rapid feedback and individualised instruction in a classroom of one teacher to dozens of students. In the 1990s, as the internet became more mainstream, learners experienced autonomy through the choice of sequence with the multitude of hyperlinks that connect online information in a nonlinear fashion. The internet addressed individuals’ needs for relatedness by providing an audience for creations ranging from blog posts about daily life to YouTube clips showcasing singing talents. Recent digital media platforms have enhanced this trend of online sharing through the remix mash-up culture of fusing clips of others’ work in the creation of new personal media.

Nowadays, at the forefront of new technology is the rapid adoption and growing sophistication of mobile handhelds, which provide a new platform for designing learning environments. Traditional computer use in educational settings usually requires a trade-off. Taking advantage of the benefits of workplace technology typically requires that students work quietly and independently in their chairs, devoid of most social interactions. Mobile handhelds, however, can potentially allow for the best of both worlds as learning environments can be designed to harness the motivational affordances of both in-person and technology-enhanced experiences.

Through a review of existing literature, we identify several design elements in educational technology that have been successful in attending to the motivational needs among learners. We then discuss how mobile handhelds are uniquely able to contribute to those needs above and beyond what previous technology has done. In doing so, we suggest ways of taking advantage of the affordances of...