Horses and Their Humans in Nineteenth-Century France
Kari Weil
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Precarious Partners
Horses and Their Humans in Nineteenth-Century France
Kari Weil
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From the recent spate of equine deaths on racetracks to protests demanding the removal of mounted Confederate soldier statues to the success and appeal of War Horse, there is no question that horses still play a role in our livesâthough fewer and fewer of us actually interact with them. In Precarious Partners, Kari Weil takes readers back to a time in France when horses were an inescapable part of daily life. This was a time when horse ownership became an attainable dream not just for soldiers but also for middle-class children; when natural historians argued about animal intelligence; when the prevalence of horse beatings led to the first animal protection laws; and when the combined magnificence and abuse of these animals inspired artists, writers, and riders alike.Weil traces the evolving partnerships established between French citizens and their horses through this era. She considers the newly designed "races" of workhorses who carried men from the battlefield to the hippodrome, lugged heavy loads through the boulevards, or paraded women riders, amazones, in the parks or circus hallsâas well as those unfortunate horses who found their fate on a dinner plate. Moving between literature, painting, natural philosophy, popular cartoons, sports manuals, and tracts of public hygiene, Precarious Partners traces the changing social, political, and emotional relations with these charismatic creatures who straddled conceptions of pet and livestock in nineteenth-century France.
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The horse may be the only nonhuman animal deemed worthy of visual representation throughout history. Equines were the most numerous of the animals depicted on the walls of the Lascaux Cave in France during the Paleolithic era. Throughout Greek history horses were painted and carved with or without chariots to emphasize their importance in battle and for travel. The tradition of equestrian portraiture depicting emperors and noblemen on horseback began in antiquity and flourished in Europe during the Renaissance and early modern period. In visual records of heroic action or royal governance, horses appear both as literal support and as symbolic embodiment of the defiant forces of nature that a figure of authority, usually male, has harnessed. This is why Buffon described the horse as the âmost beautiful conquest of man,â beauty and utility being inseparable in eighteenth-century aesthetics.1 Significant events in human history depended on horses, a fact many written histories, unlike visual accounts, ignored. But what about the horse as a subject in his (or her) own right? Might the horse also be a subject of history so that, as Daniel Roche suggests, we might reverse Buffonâs adage and say, âMan is the horseâs finest conquestâ?2
âDoes history need animals?â This question was posed by a special issue of the journal History and Theory, and the answer depends both on what we mean by history and on what we mean by animals.3 If we accept that we humans are animals, certainly there would be no history without us. The notion of an animal history, however, takes us beyond regarding animals as worthy historical objects of our world so we can see how such objects must also be regarded as historical subjects and thus as themselves agents of historyâours and theirs. Horses are our partners on the battlefield as in the streets, but it is a precarious partnership that can be threatened on both sides, whether by resistance, by miscommunication, or by a breach of trust. This notion of animal partnership and hence agency becomes especially visible in horse paintings of the nineteenth century, which also constitute a significant challenge to any lingering acceptance of the Cartesian idea of the animal machine, subject only to âmanagementâ by its owner.4
In many regards the eighteenth century was transitional for horsemanship and for visual representations of horses and riders. Donna Landry argues that the increasingly popular importing of âEasternâ horses into Europe and especially into England at this time changed methods of training and handling because of their different physical and mental capacities.5 The particular intelligence of Arabian horses influenced British horsemanship, Landry writes, and made them into lauded subjects of equine portraiture, if not also critical viewers of those portraits. Legend has it that the famous racehorse Whistlejacket reared in reaction to the portrait George Stubbs painted of him in 1762.6 Art historian Walter Leidtke writes that the eighteenth century marked the culmination of the tradition of royal equestrian portraiture, but it was also a period of âunintended parody,â as in Goyaâs âdismounted equestrian portraits.â7 With the rise of aristocratic and bourgeois riders, equestrian portraiture was no longer reserved for royalty; in the works of George Stubbs (1724â1806), it could indicate nostalgia for the pleasures of nature and the countryside.8 The growth of natural history during the century also contributed to notions of animal agency, even as its organization and taxonomy emphasized an animalâs subservience to human history and human use. Buffon, for example, appeared to recognize a certain agency on the horseâs part insofar as the horse accepted not only his domestication but also his participation in a history made by his master.9 âThe horse shares the fatigue of war and the glory of combat; as intrepid as his master, the horse sees peril and confronts it.â10
Artistic representations of horses, and of nonhuman animals more generally, informed the new field of natural history by confirming human dominance over nature and regarding domestication as divinely ordained. In taxonomies such as Buffonâs Natural History (published in thirty-six volumes from 1749 to 1789) or Thomas Bewickâs General History of Quadrupeds (1790), horses were placed at the top of the animal kingdom, closest to man through their service to him or their ability to reflect his power and nobility, though assuredly distanced from him as part of the natural world. This closeness was also regarded as moral insofar as obedience and will become the same thing. Thus Buffon ascribes agency to the horse who denies his own will and represses his desires in order to obey his human master. âIt is a creature who renounces his being in order to exist only by the volition of another,â he writes, adding, moreover, that the horse âwill even exhaust himself and die in order to obey.â11