Urban and Industrial Water Conservation Methods

Abbas Yari, Saeid Eslamian, Faezeh Eslamian

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2020
• Print ISBN:
  9780367533182
• eBook ISBN:
  9781000086768
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Ecology
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Urban and Industrial Water Conservation Methods provides comprehensive and practical information regarding water use for various different sectors and describes the most suitable conservation devices and techniques to reduce water consumption in urban environments. It demonstrates how these conservation devices and best practices can greatly and quickly increase the efficiency of water use in both new and existing buildings.

Features:

• Examines conservation devices and techniques across residential, commercial, and institutional sectors.
• Provides practical advice on implementing water conservation methods for users across various industries.
• Explains how to quickly improve water efficiency by using cost-effective water-saving devices and techniques.
• Includes relevant international case studies to reinforce the content.

Written by practicing water conservation consultants for a wide audience, including municipality authorities and decision-makers, researchers, and students alike, Urban and Industrial Water Conservation Methods applies to residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial end users.

1 An Introduction to Residential Water Users

Abbas Yari, Saeid Eslamian, and Faezeh Eslamian

Water withdrawals have tripled over the last 50 years due to rapid population growth. With water resources extensively strained or even depleted; however, proper management of supply and careful use of these resources has not received enough attention.

The measurement of consumers’ water intake shows that about 65% of domestic consumption is due to the use of toilet siphons, showerheads, lavatory taps, and kitchen fixtures and appliances. Several studies around the world have shown that by installing water-restricting devices and limiting water flow, a significant reduction in water consumption can be achieved.

The intelligent selection of water conservation devices (WCDs) can play an essential and influential role in every water conservation project.

Showerheads and taps contribute 33% and 10% of average household water use, respectively. Replacing all standard residential appurtenances (faucets, toilets, showerheads, baths, washing machines, dishwashers, and outdoor water consumers) with water-efficient products would result in an overall 32% decrease in domestic water consumption, or 40,716 liters per year for a European household

By retrofitting Kashan’s city fixtures, residential water consumption was reduced by 22%. As a result, Kashan could postpone its next water supply project by up to six years. The cost–benefit ratio of this conservation measure is estimated to be 5.8:1.

1.1 Introduction

Demographics and the increasing consumption that comes with rising per capita incomes are the most important drivers of pressure on water. The world’s population is growing by about 80 million people per year, implying an increased freshwater demand of about 64 billion cubic meters per year. Competition for water exists at all levels and is forecast to increase alongside demands for water in almost all countries. With rapid population growth. This trend is explained largely by the rapid increase in irrigation development stimulated by food demand in the 1970s, and by the continued growth of agriculture-based economies. In 2030, 47% of the world’s population will be living in areas of high water stress. Most population growth will occur in developing countries, mainly in regions that are already experiencing water stress and in areas with limited access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation facilities (United Nations World Water Development 2009).

1.2 Water Demand Management

Water demand trends in urban areas around the world show a continuous increase over the past few decades predicting continued growth in the coming years. The primary causes of increased water consumption and its supply problems might be population growth and urbanization, and consequently the expansion of cities, along with changes in lifestyle, demographic structure, excessive water extraction from all available resources regardless of their proximity, and also the possible impacts of climate change. It is challenging and sometimes impossible for existing resources to cope with the growing demand, especially in areas already faced with water stress or crises.

Though water resources are extensively strained or even depleted, proper management of the supply and use of these resources has not received enough attention. Obviously, water resources are limited and, as a rule, there is no suitable alternative for them. It is also a challenging task to find new sources or increase water extraction from current resources. To evade these severe crises, all authorities and citizens must be committed to rational and thoughtful solutions, and to changing their lifestyles towards optimal consumption.

Water consumption control can be approached in two different ways: the supply side, which is primarily the responsibility of the relevant public bodies, and the demand side, which mainly includes consumers.

Some of the supply-side management solutions are:

• Leakage and loss control in transmission lines and water distribution networks;
• Automation of pressure adjustments and leakage/burst management;
• Creating a smart network;
• Improving water use efficiency;
• Using reclaimed wastewater for irrigation and miscellaneous water users;
• Using surface water for urban landscapes.

For the development of new water resources, in addition to the limited and costly options, the sensitivity of citizens and policymakers to new projects (such as initiating or expanding withdrawal from existing water resources or interbasin water transfer) might be raised. Thus, demand-side management could be a more attractive option for the optimal use of existing water resources and should be put into practice. In this way, without imposing extra pressure on current resources, some parts of the available water resources and water supply systems can be released.

Water demand management involves a broad range of measures, policies, or investments for specific instruments to achieve the efficient distribution of water to all members of society. These actions could include:

• Water pricing reform;
• Promoting the use of water-reducing devices and motivating subscribers to install them;
• Improving water-consuming equipment;
• Mandating the installation of efficient water-consuming devices, mainly for new buildings, through legislation;
• Measuring the combined demand of consumers;
• Plumbing inspection programs that include the examination of all water-consuming appliances and the identification and repair of leaks in the buildings;
• Direct communication with consumers on an effecttive strategy, based on the socio-psychological recognition of the society and its values, including massive campaigns at the community level, public places, online, etc.;
• Providing consulting services and assigning incentives to citizens;
• Using treated water as an alternative to primary and potable water resources;
• Restrictions on water consumption for some water users, permanently or temporarily.

Demand-side management can be implemented in the short or long term, depending on the needs of the community. Limitations such as abnormal pricing for drought conditions and modernization programs with low-cost conservation devices are examples of short-term actions. Examples of long-term measures, among many other solutions, include modifying the pricing policy, identifying leaks, and repairing and adjusting the water efficiency of new buildings. Assessment of demand-side management practices is also critical to ensure that the measures are economical and cost-effective.

One of the most effective methods of monitoring water consumption is to focus on consumer water components. The measurement of consumers’ water intake shows that about 65% of domestic consumption is due to the use of toilet siphons, showerheads, lavatory taps, and kitchen fixtures and appliances. Several studies around the world have shown that by installing water-restricting devices and limiting water flow through appliances, a significant reduction in water consumption can be achieved.

Controlling and reducing the use of bathroom showerheads, taps, and kitchen faucet with small and inexpensive devices can be easily achieved. In homes and places with a flush tank installed, the use of dual-flush siphons helps significantly to reduce water consumption. The intelligent selection of water conservation devices (WCDs) can play an essential and influential role in the success of research, studies, and action.

Regarding water efficiency and savings, the European Commission’s study on water-efficient standards by the Directorate-General for the Environment estimated that showerheads and taps contribute 33% and 10% of average household water use, respectively. Replacing all standard residential appurtenances (faucets, toilets, showerheads, baths, washing machines, dishwashers, and outdoor water consumers) with water-efficient products would result in an overall 32% decrease in domestic water consumption, or 40,716 liters per year for a European Union (EU) household, (Mudgal et al. 2009). Table 1.1 illustrates the technologies available to conserve water in urban water-using devices and recommends the best available and practical technologies, too (Savage 2009).

TABLE 1.1
Technologies to Consider for Conserving Water in Urban Water-Using Devices (Savage 2009)

1.3 Case Studies

Since the 1980s, Israel has been using drip irrigation and micro-sprinkler techniques to expand crop output within the limits of existing water supplies. These techniques are mainly used for vegetable and fruit trees, and are integrated into computerized systems that operate irrigation applications automatically based on information collected via plant moisture sensors. This technology, combined with the use of water-efficient crops, has resulted in an irrigation efficiency of 90%, as compared to the 64% efficiency of the traditional furrow irrigation system. As a result, average water requirements were reduced by 40% between 1975 and the end of the 1990s. At the same time, agricultural output increased twelve-fold.

The Israeli project to conserve urban water was conducted between 2002 and 2004, during which time water-saving devices were installed in the public buildings of local authorities, including schools, kindergartens, local youth culture centers, municipal/local council buildings, etc.

• Only devices labeled with the Blue Mark (a water conservative labeling system) were installed;
• The installation operation was applied across all municipalities and local councils in Israel;
• About 62,000 dual flushing cisterns, 3,000 waterless urinals, 105,000 sink- and shower-saving devices, and 2,000 garden volumetric valve and local irrigation controllers were installed.

Based on data collected from 30 authorities, it has come to be known that the average water saving in a building where water-saving devices were installed is 25%, (Lev 2012).

Between 1996 and 2000, and again in 2002 and 2004, the city of Santa Fe and the surrounding area experienced very dry years. With the intent to reduce per capita water use, the city of Santa Fe instituted emergency water conservation measures that included, among other provisions, restrictions on residential and commercial outdoor watering, as well as water-saving measures in commercial and public spaces. Additionally, the city implemented a comprehensive conservation program, documented in the Water Conservation and Drought Management Plan of 2005, which combin...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half-Title
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Preface
• Authors
• Chapter 1 An Introduction to Residential Water Users
• Chapter 2 Water Flow Controllers/Restrictors
• Chapter 3 Residential Water Use
• Chapter 4 Commercial, Institutional, and Industrial Water Use
• Chapter 5 Water Efficiency Regulations in Domestic Buildings
• Index