The Use and Function of Scripture in 1 Maccabees

Dongbin Choi

• Publisher: T&T Clark
• Year: 2020
• Print ISBN:
  9780567696458
• eBook ISBN:
  9780567695451
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Biblical Criticism & Interpretation

Dongbin Choi offers a philological and thematic analysis on the scriptural language in the book of 1 Maccabees, a text that is written with a linguistic technique that utilizes earlier Jewish texts in order to promote the religiopolitical agendas of its author. Choi engages in the dialogue between the traditional view that treats 1 Maccabees as a religious writing, and the radical view that considers it as political propaganda.

Choi suggests that the author of 1 Maccabees deploys scriptural language in such a nuanced way that he both promotes the legitimacy of the Hasmonean rule in Judea under John Hyrcanus I, and shows his appreciation of conservative Jewish sensitivity toward their traditions relating to Deuteronomic covenant, biblical judges, and Jewish messianism. By discussing past scholarly literature on the use and function of Scripture in 1 Maccabees, analyzing various literary, political, and cultural aspects that influenced the creation of the text, and finally exploring philological and conceptual parallels between Scripture and 1 Maccabees and the use of Scripture in the eulogies of the Hasmoneans, Choi has created a singular reinterpretation of both text and author.

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. General introduction

The book of 1 Maccabees poses some difficulties for Jews and Christians alike due to its place among the so-called Apocrypha (in Protestant terminology) or Deuterocanonical writings (in Catholic and Eastern Orthodox terms) within the Christian Bible(s), and its absence in the Jewish canon despite its obvious ‘biblical’ character. As scriptural evocation is a prominent feature of the ways in which 1 Maccabees recounts the Hasmonean revolution, the question is raised whether this is an example of a propagandistic subterfuge of a dynasty of usurpers or an honest expression of a religious conviction. The author of 1 Maccabees used these earlier biblical texts in a variety of ways, corresponding to many biblical books. But what is the function of this scriptural language within the author’s compositional purpose? Does the scriptural evocation merely serve stylistic ends, acting as nothing more than a formidable, authority-borrowing language? Or, does it simply serve the Hasmonean claim to power, using biblical pretexts to camouflage their worldly ambitions? Or, to the contrary, does it describe the Maccabean revolt and triumph as honestly felt fulfilment of Israel’s future hopes expressed in Scripture? And if so, which specific hopes were fulfilled?

Politics and religion cannot be separated from each other, and any attempt at an over-emphasis on one of the two raises a question. It has often been suggested that the author of 1 Maccabees claims that the Davidic messianic hopes have been fulfilled by the Hasmonean family, which raises the question about any further hopes for the future. Other scholars ignore the potential significance of the meaning of the scriptural language largely on the grounds that the book serves an exclusively dynastic purpose which lacks any interest in religious values. In addition, studies on the compositional purpose of the book saw an emerging strand of scholarship putting forward legitimation of the Hasmonean kingship in 1 Maccabees as its main aim, leading, however, to disagreements among the experts. Politics, in this scholarly trend, is seen as (re-)shaping religion.

The present study seeks to re-assess these controversies and disagreements with regard to the interpretation of 1 Maccabees by offering a close analysis on the ways in which Scripture is used in the book and its function within the author’s compositional purpose. The present study will argue that, through dynamic ways of using Scripture, the author demonstrates the Hasmonean triumph as a proof of continuous divine providence for the covenant people of YHWH. The Hasmonean family’s role resembles that of biblical heroes, most prominently biblical judges, who delivered salvation and restoration to Israel. In this way, Israel’s future hopes were seen as fulfilled by the Hasmonean family, but not to the extent of eschatological fulfilment. The restoration of the Judean nation under the Hasmonean leadership was seen as part of the on-going Jewish history which extended from scriptural history, and was believed to be guided by the divinely promised future. This also bears implications on ancient Jewish perception of the past as evident in biblical and post-biblical literature, which entails questions of the ways in which the Jews either preserved, manipulated or even ignored their past in writing their history. In a larger context, our study will contribute to on-going studies on the use of Scripture in early Judaism and early Christianity.

1.2. Literature review

As a preliminary to this study, a literature review will provide the necessary background to understand the current debates about the use and function of Scripture in 1 Maccabees. Particular attention will be paid to (1) scholars’ evaluation of the nature of the biblically styled language in 1 Maccabees, (2) the function of that language within the authorial intention with special regard to the role of the Hasmoneans, (3) and a recent tendency of Hasmonean studies in which use of Scripture has an important bearing on the shaping of Jewish perceptions of the past in antiquity.

1.2.1. Functionality of Scripture in 1 Maccabees

Commentaries and introductory and individual thematic studies on 1 Macca­bees unanimously observe that its style resembles biblical literature. Furthermore, a majority of scholars claim that individual phrases, terms and themes from biblical books were consciously alluded to, either as fulfilment of hopes expressed in Scripture, or as a re-enactment of past events in Israel’s history preserved in Scripture.¹ As Robert Doran aptly states:

[1 Maccabees] is a narrative interspersed with traditional poetic passages and whose syntax imitates that of narrative sections of the Hebrew Scriptures. It is, then, a narrative that consciously aims at incorporating its story into the tradition of the Hebrew Scriptures… 1 Maccabees perceives the events it tells as another reenactment of the events of the Hebrew Scriptures… This view of present-day events reflecting the Scriptures can be compared to the way the Qumran covenanters and the authors of the Gospels interpret the psalms and the prophets as talking about events in their own history. The author has not written a simple presentation of facts, but has woven a highly textured narrative.²

However, a few others are either ambivalent about such an intention or even deny any allusions, instead considering the language as merely stylistic. W. Fairweather and J. Sutherland Black state:

The style of the book is that of simple prose narrative, and is modelled on that of the historical books of the O.T. For the most part it is even as unadorned as that of Ezra and Nehemiah. Yet now and then, as in these canonical works, the language rises into impassioned rhetoric (i. 25–28, 38–40, ix. 10, xiv. 8–15) and even into poetry (ii. 7–13, 49–68, iii. 3–9, 18–22, 50–53, iv. 8–11, vi. 10–13).³

Their brief, reserved remark on the use of biblical materials in 1 Macca­bees is notable when their running commentary already contains numerous biblical references. One wonders how Fairweather and Black regard, for instance, the language of impassioned rhetoric and of poetry: are those rhetorical and poetic expressions merely imitation of style, or are they intended to render a more significant meaning in the text? W. O. E. Oesterley even explicitly states:

While, as might be expected, there are frequent reminiscences of the language of the Old Testament, the author in no wise imitates this, his writing being marked throughout by his own individual style.⁴

As a result, where paralleled phrases in 1 Maccabees can be found in biblical literature, Oesterley tends to limit them as examples of Hebraism in the book.⁵ However, whilst scrutiny is justified, denial is untenable. On the one hand, an individual phrase that can be found in both 1 Maccabees and a biblical material may be an idiomatic expression without an allusion to any specific text, for example, 1 Macc. 5.54 (‘until they returned in peace’, ἕως τοῦ ἐπιστρέψαι ἐν εἰρήνῃ) in parallel with 1 Kgs 22.27 and 2 Chron. 18.26 (‘until I return in peace’, עד באי בשלום, ἕως τοῦ ἐπιστρέψαι με ἐν εἰρήνῃ). On the other hand, several dozens of cases show that there are both morphological and thematic resemblances between 1 Maccabees and biblical materials, which clearly indicate something more than reminiscence. One example is 1 Macc. 1.15 (‘[the pro-Seleucid Jerusalem authorities] sold themselves to do evil’, ἐπράθησαν τοῦ ποιῆσαι τὸ πονήρον’) which is in parallel with 2 Kgs 17.17 (ויתמכרו לעשות הרע), both of which address national catastrophes caused by the defilement of the covenant with God.⁶ Moreover, we shall see in due course several long sentences which are identical to specific biblical materials, suggesting intended implicit quotations.⁷

Amongst the majority of scholars who attest to biblical allusion in 1 Maccabees, several scholars further observe the prevalent use of the historical books of the Hebrew Bible and the somewhat ambiguous, implicit attitude of the author toward using prophetic books.⁸ John R. Bartlett points out the ambivalent nature of using prophetic materials in which there is both the conspicuity about echoing biblical prophecies and the lack of explicit use of them, such as mentions of prophets or quotation formulae.⁹ Bartlett suggests:

More interestingly, the author, for all his support of the Maccabees as deliverers of Israel, does not suggest that they fulfil any messianic prophecies or owe anything to the house of David.¹⁰

Bartlett’s solution to that particularly implicit use of biblical prophetic materials is thus a non-messianic claim about the role of the Hasmoneans in 1 Maccabees. We will return to the role of the Hasmoneans in more detail shortly.

In short, concerning the functionality of Scripture in 1 Maccabees, a majority of scholars affirm that the author consciously makes allusions to scriptural materials, although the ambivalence about scriptural allusion expressed by a minority should not be easily dismissed. The question is: why is the author making such constant allusions to Scripture? What are his aims?

1.2.2. Scripture, fulfilment of Israel’s hope, and the role of the Hasmoneans

The question as to the authorial intention of using scriptural allusions directly encourages consideration of topics such as the authorship and purpose of 1 Maccabees, within which use of Scripture functions. As a starting point, most scholars have affirmed that the book was written with the intention to support the Hasmonean claim of power over the Jewish nation, and that the author either belonged to the Hasmonean court or was at least a pro-Hasmonean Jew.¹¹ Exceptionally, Robert H. Pfeiffer and Uriel Rappaport viewed the role of the Hasmonean family more neutrally and attributed due weight on other figures such as the Jewish people who participated in the drama of freedom fighting by supporting and cooperating with the family.¹² Doran even suggested the composition as a polemic against the Hasmonean dynasty.¹³ The majority view in favour of the book’s pro-Hasmonean origin, however, better explains some of the quintessentially pro-Hasmonean elements in the book that strongly suggest the author’s bias toward the Hasmonean family. Examples include: the author’s comment describing the Hasmonean family as ‘the seed of those men to whom was given salvation to Israel by their hand’;¹⁴ glorification of the Hasmonean heroism as a dominant theme;¹⁵ and as observed by Jan Willem van Henten, the deliberate depictions of a father–son relationship of the Hasmonean family resonating with a royal lineage.¹⁶ Moreover, the legitimacy of the Hasmonean high priesthood is quite plainly alluded to through various elements in the narrative.¹⁷ These examples, to name but a few, indicate a biased view of the author toward the Hasmonean family.

It follows that the majority of scholars generally attest to the salvific role of the Hasmoneans. The question, however, is about the precise nature of that salvific role and its implications on the purpose of 1 Macca­bees. From the outset, scholars traditionally attributed a general, non-messianic salvific role to the Hasmoneans, whilst a growing number of scholars attest to the Davidic-messianic role. Both of these views find their support from the scriptural language of the book.

Traditionally, scholars claimed that 1 Maccabees represents a conservative Jewish view, attributing a non-messianic, salvific role to the Hasmoneans,¹⁸ as is aptly restated by Menahem Stern:

[D]espite the eschatological ferment and the yearning for the end of days, no messianic movement arose in Judea at the time of the persecution and no seers or prophets emerged to proclaim the kingdom of the House of David. When the Hasmoneans came to the fore in launching the Jewish rebellion they performed their deeds as a priestly family profoundly loyal to the Jewish religion. Its adherents regarded it as a family to whom the deliverance of Israel had been entrusted at this time of confusion and terror. However, many also felt that the rule of the Hasmoneans would continue only until the reappearance of a prophet.¹⁹

For Stern, the belief about Israel’s ultimate future was common amongst Jews in the Hasmonean era, and expectations of messianic movements, emergences of prophets and restitution of the Davidic kingdom. Nevertheless, the Maccabean revolt was led by ‘a priestly family profoundly loyal to the Jewish religion’, indicating that the early Hasmonean leaders, for Stern, were primarily interested in religious values and were conservative in preserving older traditions. In this way, Stern made a distinction between the Hasmonean revolt and later messianic movements, claiming that the Hasmoneans ‘did not go out to battle either to give dominion to new ideals or to establish the Kingdom of God on earth’.²⁰ Some scholars additionally either hint or claim the association of the Hasmoneans’ role with biblical judges in this regard.²¹ Other scholars have heeded internal details which shed light on the Jewish sensitivity toward kingship in the time when the Davidic throne was absent in Judea.²²

A notable exception away from this traditional view is John J. Collins who claims that ‘[t]he Maccabees are repeatedly viewed in the light of Old Testam...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Acknowledgements
• Abbreviations
• Chapter 1
• Chapter 2
• Chapter 3
• Chapter 4
• Chapter 5
• Chapter 6
• Bibliography
• Index of References
• Index of Authors