Christian–Muslim Relations in Syria

Historic and Contemporary Religious Dynamics in a Changing Context

Andrew W. H. Ashdown

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2020
• eBook ISBN:
  9781000244793
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Middle Eastern Politics

Offering an authoritative study of the plural religious landscape in modern Syria and of the diverse Christian and Muslim communities that have cohabited the country for centuries, this volume considers a wide range of cultural, religious and political issues that have impacted the interreligious dynamic, putting them in their local and wider context.

Combining fieldwork undertaken within government-held areas during the Syrian conflict with critical historical and Christian theological reflection, this research makes a significant contribution to understanding Syria's diverse religious landscape and the multi-layered expressions of Christian-Muslim relations. It discusses the concept of sectarianism and how communal dynamics are crucial to understanding Syrian society. The complex wider issues that underlie the relationship are examined, including the roles of culture and religious leadership; and it questions whether the analytical concept of sectarianism is adequate to describe the complex communal frameworks in the Middle Eastern context. Finally, the study examines the contributions of contemporary Eastern Christian leaders to interreligious discourse, concluding that the theology and spirituality of Eastern Christianity, inhabiting the same cultural environment as Islam, is uniquely placed to play a major role in interreligious dialogue and in peace-making.

The book offers an original contribution to knowledge and understanding of the changing Christian-Muslim dynamic in Syria and the region. It should be a key resource to students, scholars and readers interested in religion, current affairs and the Middle East.

1 Christianity in Syria

The Ecclesiastical Mosaic

1.1 Introduction

This chapter presents a brief survey of the history and diverse ecumenical expressions of the Christian presence in Syria. It introduces the important role that Christianity has played through its encounter with Islam, in establishing and rooting within Syria a culture of religious and social plurality which continues to offer hope for the future, despite the trauma unleashed by the recent conflict. Exploring the historical background is essential to understanding the contemporary religious context and its relevance to the wider contemporary Christian–Muslim dynamic. The chapter outlines a brief history of Christianity’s encounter with Islam in the region and the significance of relevant developments in the 20th century.

The Christian landscape in Syria illustrates the plurality and confluence of Eastern Christian communities in a way that is almost unique anywhere in the world. Damascus is home to three Antiochene Patriarchates: the Eastern Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox and the Greek Melkite, and every ecumenical family of the Church is represented in the country.¹

The religious and cultural identity of Syria is profoundly influenced by the history of Christianity. It has a rich, complex and ancient identity, emerging as it does at the crossroads of some of the great cultures of the region. Yet, despite the fact that the Middle East is the “place of origin of Christianity” and that “Eastern Christians constitute one of the largest Christian traditions in the world”, until recent years Christianity in the Middle East has been significantly understudied (O’Mahony, 2017, p. 159). Since its earliest days, Christianity has been present in the region. Within a few years of the resurrection, we read in the Book of Acts of St. Paul heading to Damascus to persecute an already established Christian community in the city.² St. Luke tells us that it was in Antioch in Syria that Christians were first labelled as such (Acts 11:26), and the many remains of Christian Churches and buildings dating from the earliest days of the Christian faith in the region witness to the strong presence of the Christian faith at the time.³

1.2 A brief survey of the five “families” of Christian denominations in Syria

1.2.1 Oriental Orthodox

See Table 1.1. The Oriental Orthodox churches (Syriac, Malankara Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopian, Eritrean and Armenian Orthodox Churches) have their roots in the Middle East and India and regard themselves as having apostolic origin. In full communion with each other, the churches emerged in their current form through their rejection of the Chalcedonian definition of the nature of Christ, and their preservation of eastern forms of liturgy, language, theology and structure. They distanced themselves from the Byzantine empire, and experienced persecution from the west. Classical Syriac remains the liturgical language of the Syriac Orthodox Church, which continues to have a significant presence across Syria, particularly in Damascus, Homs, Aleppo, Qamishle and Hassakeh. However, it is estimated that approximately half of the Syriac Christian community in Syria have emigrated during the war.⁴ Due to the emigration of Christians from Syria and Iraq, the Syriac Orthodox Church now has growing congregations across Europe, North America and Australasia.

Table 1.1 Christian Churches in the Middle East.

During the course of my research, I was a guest of the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate on several occasions and visited destroyed Syriac churches in Deir Ezzor and Homs, Syriac communities in other parts of the country, as well as the worldwide headquarters of the Syriac Orthodox Church at Ma’aret Saidnaya, where the theological seminary continues to train priests from around the world, and where a new Syriac University (the “Antioch University”) was opened in September 2018. Nurturing secular and religious education is seen as a primary ministry within the contemporary Syriac Orthodox Church. The abduction of Archbishop Mor Gregorios Yohanna Ibrahim, the Syriac Orthodox Archbishop of Aleppo, along with Bishop Boulos Yazigi of the Eastern Orthodox Church on 22 April, 2013, continues to affect the attitude of the Christian communities in Syria towards the conflict, and their sense of self-identity as a Church that has inspired generations through its perseverance amidst persecution. Despite the impact of emigration, the Syriac Orthodox Church is determined to maintain a significant and influential presence in Syria, and this is evidenced through the ongoing development of its monasteries, churches and educational institutions (Bailey and Bailey, 2010; Brock, 2010; Hunter, 2014; Shemunkasho, 2018).⁵ The current patriarch of the Syriac Orthodox Church, His Holiness Mor Ignatius Aphrem II, is much loved by his worldwide flock and has been an influential voice for preserving the plurality and diversity of Syria and protecting the Christian presence in the country.

1.2.2 Eastern Orthodox

The Eastern Orthodox Church, an eastern expression of the Greek Orthodox Church, (also known as the Antiochian Orthodox Church) encompasses the Patriarchates of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. It regards itself as representing the true descendants of the early Church and its theology and faith is rooted in the Bible and the Nicene-Constantinopolitan creed, as defined within the first seven councils of the early Church, in which the Church of Antioch played an important part. Accepting the formula of the dual nature of Christ agreed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE, the Eastern Orthodox are sometimes termed “Chalcedonian”. The oft-used term “Greek Orthodox” is misleading since it implies deeper ties to Greece than are actually present in all its autonomous expressions.

The Patriarchate of Antioch has faced several schisms over the centuries, including the debates over the Chalcedonian definitions which led to the creation of the Oriental Orthodox churches. The Eastern Orthodox have had close engagement with Islam over the centuries, and whilst Greek still dominates the patriarchates of Alexandria and Jerusalem, the Orthodox Church of Antioch perceives itself, and is perceived by Muslims, as an Arab Church whose liturgy is Arabic. The Antiochian Orthodox have played a significant role in the development of Christian–Muslim understanding. The Church has always been committed to religious and cultural plurality and diversity and is the largest denomination numerically in Syria. The current Antiochian Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch is His Beatitude John X Yazigi. (Bailey and Bailey, 2010; Roussos, 2010; Tamer, 2018).

1.2.3 Eastern Catholic

The eastern Catholic Churches are a complex ecclesial and cultural reality in Syria and the Middle East. The Latin Catholic Church, whose presence in the region goes back to the Middle Ages, is joined by six eastern Catholic Churches, namely the Maronite, Melkite (Greek Catholic), Armenian Catholic, Chaldean Catholic, Coptic Catholic and Syrian Catholic Churches. Many of these eastern expressions of the Catholic Church, though they are related to Rome and have adopted some traditions from the Roman Catholic Church, have their roots in the Orthodox tradition and cherish their eastern identity. Although numerically smaller than their Orthodox counterparts, the Catholic churches represent a significant and influential minority in the region.

In Syria, the Greek Melkite Catholic and Armenian Catholic churches together represent the most numerous Christian denominations, but both have seen a serious decline in numbers due to emigration during the conflict. The Greek Melkite Church, which has strongly protected its eastern religious identity, has been particularly influential, along with the Eastern Orthodox, in the sphere of Christian–Muslim dialogue, with the now retired Patriarch Gregorius III Laham devoting much attention to this ministry. Since June 2017, the Patriarch of the Greek Melkite Church has been His Beatitude Joseph Absi.

The Chaldean Catholic Church emerged in the 16th century over a leadership dispute. It follows the East Syriac liturgy and is small in number in Syria but more numerous in Iraq where the Patriarchate is located. The Syriac Catholic church emerged in the 18th century from the Syrian Orthodox Church, but prides itself in its apostolic heritage. Both Syriac and Arabic are used in the liturgy. In Syria, Syriac Catholics are most numerous in Aleppo and eastern Syria, where the Church manages many educational institutions. The Armenian Catholic Church has its origins amongst those Armenians who supported the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The Church suffered grievously during the genocide that followed World War One. As a minority community, the Armenian Catholic, Orthodox and Evangelical churches share good relations and collaborate closely, as I have witnessed when visiting their communities in Kessab and Aleppo. In Syria, the Armenian Catholic community are most numerous in Aleppo (Bailey and Bailey, 2010; O’Mahony, 2010, 2018; Whooley, 2010).

1.2.4 Protestant Churches

The Protestant Churches are numerically small in Syria and in the region, but due to their commitment to the building of educational, health and social welfare institutions, their influence is significant. Their presence in the region goes back to the American missionary movements during the first half of the 19th century, the first Protestant congregation in the Middle East being formed in Beirut in 1827 (Raheb, 2018, p. 256). In the Middle East, the Protestant Churches, including the Anglican, Lutheran and Presbyterian denominations, are all titled “evangelical”. However, the “mainstream” Protestant Churches are to be distinguished from independent evangelical Protestant groups that were part of a wave of evangelical missionary activity in the 20th century that established new independent evangelical churches, some of which sought to convert non-Christians and members of the indigenous Eastern Churches to their fold. This has been a source of tension, not only amongst Protestant denominations, but between Protestant and Eastern Churches, particularly as Eastern Churches tend not to distinguish between different Protestant denominations. In Syria there is a very small Anglican presence (based solely in Damascus, but overseen by and part of the Anglican Diocese of Jerusalem), a modest Lutheran presence and several established Presbyterian Churches in different parts of the country. They are all members of the National Evangelical Synod of Syria and Lebanon and the Middle East Council of Churches. There also exist a range of independent, autonomous evangelical churches that are not a part of the Middle East Council of Churches, that have small congregations in Syria and across the region.

Raheb describes the Protestants in the region as a “double minority” (Raheb, 2018, p. 269). Numerically, they are a minority within a Muslim majority. But as Protestants, they are also a Christian minority. Nevertheless, although the roots of the Protestant Churches lie in 19th century missionary activity, the Protestant Churches are indigenous Arab communities who use Arabic for liturgy and worship. The western origin of the denominations can be a challenge within the Middle Eastern context and particularly as regards perception in relation to Eastern Christians, but the Protestant churches meet this challenge by developing contextual theologies, and placing a high priority on theological education, and ecumenical and interreligious dialogue.

The mainstream Protestant churches come under the Fellowship of the Middle East Evangelical Churches (FMEEC). This organisation brings together 15 reformed Lutheran and Episcopal Churches from Algeri...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Endorsements
• Half-Title
• Series
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Foreword by His Holiness, Syriac Orthodox Patriarch Mor Ignatius Aphrem II
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• 1 Christianity in Syria: The Ecclesiastical Mosaic
• 2 Islam in Syria: The Muslim Mosaic
• 3 Cultural Contexts that Influence Christian–Muslim Relations
• 4 Christian–Muslim Relations in Syria
• 5 Eastern Christian Approaches to Christian–Muslim Engagement in Syria
• Conclusion
• Appendix: Questionnaire analysis of Syrian perspectives on Christian–Muslim relations
• Glossary
• Index