Tomb Security in Ancient Egypt from the Predynastic to the Pyramid Age

Reg Clark

• Publisher: Archaeopress Archaeology
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN: 9781784912994
• eBook ISBN: 9781784913007
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Archaeology
• Index: Social Sciences

Egyptians went to great lengths to protect their dead from the omnipresent threat of robbery by incorporating specially developed architectural features in their tombs. However, the architecture of tomb security has rarely been studied as a subject in its own right and is usually treated as a secondary topic in publications of a scholarly nature, which tend to regard its role as incidental to the design of the tomb rather than perhaps being the driving force behind it. This issue had been raised in the early Twentieth Century by Reisner (1908: 11), who suggested that the rapid evolution of Egyptian tomb substructures was as a result of the desire for tomb security and more ostentatious tombs, rather than a development spurred by religious or funerary practices. Taking this premise much further, this book presents an in-depth analysis of the architecture of tomb security in Egypt from the Predynastic Period (c. 5000–4000 BC) until the early Fourth Dynasty (c. 2500 BC) by extrapolating data on the security features of published tombs from the whole of Egypt and gathering it together for the first time in one accessible database. Using the information assembled it adds new information to the current body of knowledge concerning the architecture of tomb security and explains many of the underlying reasons behind their adoption. By thematically analysing these features in order to draw conclusions it also demonstrates that many aspects of the architecture of the Egyptian tomb over this period, in both royal and private contexts–whilst subject to changing tastes, needs and ideologies–had indeed originated as the result of the need to protect the tomb or improve its security.

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• List of Figures
• Acknowledgements
• Abbreviations
• Conventions
• List of Figures and Maps
• 1. Introduction
• 2. Substructure and access route typology
• 3. The early precursors of tomb security
• 4. The defence of the burial chamber
• 5. The security of the access route and its blockings
• 6. Mounds, mastabas and pyramids – the security of the superstructure
• 7. Conclusion
• Bibliography
• Charts A-Q
• Tomb Catalogue
• Tomb catalogue table of contents
• Index
• Figure 1 Sketch section of the typical arrangement of stone slabs over the graves at Site 117 at Jebel Sahaba
• Figure 2 A shallow pit burial at Merimde with the body in a contracted position.
• Figure 3 Assorted Badarian graves.
• Figure 4 Graves with ‘mounding’ in 1918 at the Canadian military cemetery at Brookwood.
• Figure 5 Burials at el-Omari Cemetery F, showing heaps of stones covering the graves.
• Figure 6 Burial with grave goods at Maadi, grave No. MA45.
• Figure 7 Rectangular shaped graves from Naqada.
• Figure 8 Wood and stick ‘roofing’ (which Reisner describes as a ‘tray’) in tomb 612 at Mesaeed, which by its pottery dates to Naqada I-II (For the pottery see MFA Boston Accession numbers: 13-3-1140 and 13-3-1167)
• Figure 9 A typical section through a late Naqada II grave lined with mud-brick. It is shown here with a wood and brick roof, covered by a mound.
• Figure 11 Tomb 26 at Cemetery HK6 at Hierakonpolis, the ledge for supporting the roofing beams can be clearly seen, along with the surrounding postholes.
• Figure 10 Artist’s impression of a lightweight superstructure over tomb 1 at Locality HK6 at Hierakonpolis – this particular example dates to Naqada IIIA.
• Figure 12 Tomb U-j at Umm el-Qaab showing its thick mud-brick liners and their position below the ancient desert levels.
• Figure 13 Tomb No. 85 at El-Kab, showing the large sandstone slabs laid over the grave, the pottery dates the burial to Naqada IIIA2.
• Figure 14 Tomb 6 in Cemetery 137 at Seyala, showing a sandstone slab in position over the grave.
• Figure 15 Grave 3 at Tunqala West with large 2 m × 0.8 m sandstone slab over pit.
• Figure 17 Cross section of tomb no. 8 at Kom el-Ahmar (Naqada III) showing large stone slabs blocking access to the burial niche.
• Figure 16 Tomb L23 at Qustul, showing the stone blocking to the burial chamber.
• Figure 19 Plan of tomb 2 at Locality 6 Hierakonpolis.
• Figure 18 Tomb 2 at Locality 6 Hierakonpolis, showing the niche in the base and side and one of its associated ‘portcullis’ stones propped up at one end.
• Figure 20 Tomb B0/1/2 the tomb of King Iry-Hor at Umm el-Qaab
• Figure 21 Tomb B7/9 the grave of King Ka.
• Figure 22 Tomb B17/18, the grave of King Narmer.
• (Kaiser and Dreyer 1982, Taf. 56c)
• Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Figure 23 Tomb B10/15/19 the grave of King Hor-Aha.
• Figure 24 The roof arrangement in tomb B10/15/19, the grave of King Hor-Aha.
• Figure 26 The re-excavated substructure of Djer in modern times, with the mud-brick ‘tongue’ walls clearly visible.
• Figure 25 The tomb of Djer at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 27 The tomb of Djet at Umm-el Qaab.
• Figure 28 The recently re-excavated battered mud-brick retaining wall surrounding the hidden tumulus in the tomb of Djet.
• Figure 29 Dreyer’s hypothetical reconstruction of the concealed mound in the tomb of King Djet at Umm el-Qaab. Above it is Dreyer’s reconstruction of a mud-brick clad sand tumulus.
• Figure 30 The tomb of Queen Merneith at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 31 The Type ID tomb of Den at Umm-el-Qaab with its descending stairway and surrounding subsidiary graves.
• Figure 32 Plan view of the core of the tomb of King Den, showing the mud-brick liner, burial chamber entrance and portcullis emplacement; together with the suggested arrangement of the internal wooden liner, wooden shrine and its supporting beams and fram
• Figure 33 . The restored burial chamber of the tomb of King Den, showing the entrance and the beams that supported the shrine and roof.
• Figure 34 The reconstructed beams and roof that supported the putative tumulus in the tomb of King Den.
• Figure 35 The Type ID tomb of Adjib at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 36 Plan of the tomb of Semerkhet at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 38 The tomb of Qa’a at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 37 The re-excavated tomb of Semerkhet from the south.
• Figure 39 Plan of the tomb of Qa’a, showing the building phases.
• Figure 40 The layout of the roofing beams and hidden tumulus in the tomb of Qa’a
• Figure 41 Section through the tomb of Qa’a showing the arrangement of the main pit, roof and possible inner hidden tumulus. The shallower magazines and subsidiary graves are to the sides.
• Figure 42 The subterranean tomb of Hotepsekhemwy/Raneb at Saqqara.
• Figure 43 Section looking west of the tomb of Hotepsekhemwy/Raneb with a reconstruction of the superstructure and the tomb’s building phases.
• Figure 44 The tomb of Ninetjer at Saqqara.
• Figure 45 The main corridor in the tomb of Ninetjer.
• Figure 46 The Type IC tomb of Peribsen at Umm el-Qaab. The partly blocked entrance can be seen in the bottom right corner,
• Figure 47 Plan of the tomb of Peribsen, showing chambers, doorways and blockings. The entrance slope is in the top left corner.
• Figure 48 The mud-brick substructure of the tomb of Khasekhemwy at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 49 The tomb of Khasekhemwy set 7 m beneath the desert at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 50 The concealed limestone burial chamber in the tomb of Khasekhemwy at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 51 The tomb of Khasekhemwy at Umm el-Qaab, showing a) the remains of the roof, and b) the reconstruction of the timber roofing.
• Figure 52 Cross section of the Step Pyramid facing west, showing the substructure and stages of the superstructure’s developme t.
• Figure 53 Cross section of the Step Pyramid looking south, showing passages running from shafts I-XI on the east and the initial mastaba and pyramid stages
• Figure 54 Plan of the Step Pyramid and its complex substructure of passages and robbers’ tunnels
• Figure 55 Sections through the shaft of the Step Pyramid showing details of the blocking in the descending passage and the gra ite vault.
• Figure 56 Galleries I–XI under the Step Pyramid and the stages of its superstructure’s development in plan over the underlying substructure.
• Figure 57 Plan and cross-section of the South Tomb at the Step Pyramid.
• Figure 58 Cross-section of the shaft in the South Tomb showing the vault, manoeuvring chamber and limestone monoliths for pro ecting the chamber.
• Figure 60 The pyramid complex of Sekhemkhet general plan and section.
• Figure 59 The enormous ‘man-sized’ stones used for the ‘rubble’ filling in the shaft of the South Tomb.
• Figure 62 Cross section of the substructure of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet, the entrance to the magazines lies under the shaft.
• Figure 61 Plan of the substructure and magazines of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet.
• Figure 63 The alabaster sarcophagus found in the burial chamber of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet.
• Figure 64 Lauer’s cross section of the ‘South Tomb’ of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet.
• Figure 65 Plan and elevation of the Layer Pyramid according to Reisner and Fisher.
• Figure 66 Section of the Layer Pyramid according to Barsanti.
• Figure 67 The layout of the Layer Pyramid as proposed by Dodson.
• Figure 68 The remains of the Brick Pyramid viewed from the north-west at Abu Roash, as seen by Lepsius in 1842.
• (Lepsius 1897, Abb. 12)
• Figure 69 The limestone knoll at Abu Roash upon which the Brick Pyramid was built, photographed in the 1980s. The pyramids of Giza can be seen on the horizon.
• Figure 70 Left: The interior of the rock-cut descending polar corridor looking towards the burial chamber and Right: the interior of the offset burial chamber of the Brick Pyramid looking up the corridor.
• Figure 71 Plan and section of the descending corridor and burial chamber of the Brick Pyramid.
• Figure 72 Reconstructed section of the Brick Pyramid from the west showing the rocky knoll, core and conjectural brick superst ucture of the pyramid.
• Figure 73 Section view of the Pyramid of Meidum looking west.
• Figure 74 The raised stone lined and corbelled burial chamber of the Pyramid of Meidum. The wooden door blocking can be seen in the first part of the descending passage.
• Figure 75 The Bent Pyramid in sections looking south and west. Showing both upper (western) and lower (northern) substructure systems.
• Figure 76 Lower section of substructure of the Bent Pyramid looking west. The putative staircase of small blocks leading to the connecting corridor is visible in chambers ‘A’ and ‘B’.
• Figure 77 Upper section of the substructure of the Bent Pyramid looking north.
• Figure 78 Section of the Red or Northern Pyramid of Sneferu looking west.
• Figure 79 Enlarged section of the substructure of the Red Pyramid looking west, showing the burial chamber and antechambers.
• Figure 80 The first corbelled limestone antechamber (‘A’) in the Red Pyramid showing the corridor leading to the virtually identical chamber (‘B’)
• Figure 81 Grave No. 6 at Tell el-Farkha with its 0.5 m thick mud-brick liner. It was closed with a 0.5 cm thick brick cover that matched its perimeter exactly.
• Figure 82 Grave no 63 at Tell el-Farkha with its 0.75–1 m thick walls, which were the same thickness in the substructure and the superstructure.
• Figure 83 Grave 100 at Tell el-Farkha, with its massive mud-brick walls and intrusive and subsidiary burials.
• Figure 84 The massive mud-brick walls of Tomb 1 at Tell Ibrahim Awad with internal magazines built within them.
• Figure 85 The substructure of the First Dynasty Type IC Mastaba No. 1 at Nazlet Batran.
• Figure 86 The Type IC Mastaba XVII at Abu Ghurab. The bucranium is encircled by a dotted line.
• Figure 87 Plan and elevation of the Type IC tomb S 3357 at Saqqara.
• Figure 88 Robbers’ hole in the burial chamber of the First Dynasty Type IC tomb S 3357 at Saqqara.
• Figure 89 Plan and section of the Type IC tomb S3471 at Saqqara
• Figure 90 Plan of tomb S 2185 at Saqqara.
• Figure 91 The stone lined walls and roof of the subterranean compartments of tomb S 2185 at Saqqara.
• Figure 92 Emery’s reconstruction drawing of the Type IC tomb S 3504 at Saqqara.
• Figure 93 Tomb S 3504, showing detail of its burial chamber’s double roof construction and its filling of rubble.
• Figure 94 Tomb S 3503 at Saqqara, with its simple rock cut pit substructure at the centre.
• Figure 95 Tomb 68.H.4 at Helwan
• Figure 97 The burial chamber of Mastaba 1060 at Tarkhan with remains of stone slabs from its roof.
• Figure 98 The double roofed Type IIC tomb II at Awlad el-Sheikh, with its two layers of mud-brick liners.
• (Ranke 1926, Abb. 3-4) Courtesy of Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
• Figure 99 Section through the brick lined pit tomb N 1532 from Cemetery 1500 at Naga el-Deir with its thick mud-brick roof.
• Figure 100 Section through the brick lined tomb N 1506 in Cemetery 1500 at Naga el-Deir with remains of its double roof.
• Figure 101 The Type IC tomb 1207 at Armant. Its projecting ‘tongue’ walls can be clearly seen.
• Figure 102 The Type IC tomb 1208 at Armant.
• Figure 103 The Type IC Grave 2897 at Minshat Abu Omar.
• Figure 104 The Type IC Grave 50 at Tell el-Farkha with one and a half brick thick liner.
• Figure 105 The double roofed Type IC tomb MO25 from Cemetery M at Abu Roash.
• Figure 106 The Type IC tomb S 3507 at Saqqara, with its deeper rock-cut pit and two levels.
• Figure 107 Emery’s drawing of tomb S 3507 at Saqqara, showing its internal arrangements with the hidden mound securing the ope ing now clearly visible.
• Figure 108 Tomb S 3111, possibly the last monumental Type IC pit tomb at Saqqara.
• Figure 109 Stone roofing slabs in situ at tomb 423.H.9 at Helwan, with possibly a robbers’ tunnel on the right?
• Figure 111 The stone lining in Helwan tomb 1390.H.2.
• Figure 110 Enlarged plan of Helwan tomb 1390.H.2 from Saad’s 1:400 scale map.
• Figure 112 The palace façade superstructure and pit of the Type IB tomb 2050 at Tarkhan.
• Figure 113 The palace façade superstructure and pit substructure of Mastaba 2038 at Tarkhan
• Figure 114 Plan and section of the stone-lined tomb III at Awlad el-Sheikh.
• Figure 115 The stone lined and roofed tomb 2 at El-Qara.
• Figure 116 The Type ID mud-brick lined tomb 1056 at Tura el-Asmant with its two portcullises.
• Figure 117 The Type ID stone lined tomb 130 at Tura el-Asmant.
• Figure 118 The Type ID stone lined tomb 249 at Tura el-Asmant.
• Figure 119 The Type ID Mastabas IV and V and at Abu Ghurab.
• Figure 120 The Type ID Mastaba V at Abu Ghurab.
• Figure 121 The Type ID tomb S 3506 at Saqqara, plan view.
• Figure 122 The Type ID tomb S 3506 at Saqqara, axonometric view.
• Figure 123 Plan of tomb S 3035 (Hemaka) at Saqqara – the notches for the roof beams are visible in the off-centre burial pit.
• Figure 124 Sections through the tomb of Hemaka S 3035 showing the descending staircase, subterranean magazines and deep shaft ising through the superstructure.
• Figure 125 Tomb S 3036 (Ankhka) at Saqqara showing the off centre burial chamber.
• Figure 126 Sections through tomb S 3036 (Ankhka) at Saqqara showing the shaft within the superstructure and the stairway.
• Figure 127 The construction phases of the Type ID tomb S 3038 (Nebitka) at Saqqara.
• Figure 128 The final plan of tomb S 3038 (Nebitka) in phase ‘C’.
• Figure 129 Section drawings of the final layout of tomb S 3038 (Nebitka) in phase ‘C’.
• Figure 130 Tomb X at Saqqara showing the deep rock-cut pit and solid mud-brick mastaba.
• Figure 131 The Type ID tomb S 3338 at Saqqara, notably for the first time its descending access slope was entirely concealed u der the superstructure.
• Figure 132 Plans and elevations of the Type ID tomb S 3500 at Saqqara.
• Figure 133 The plan of tomb S 3505 (Merka) at Saqqara.
• Figure 134 The subterranean chambers of S 3505 (Merka)
• Figure 135 Section through tomb S 3505 (Merka) showing the staircase, portcullis and burial chamber roofed by strong beams and planks up to 30 cm thick.
• Figure 136 The unlined gravel cut pit and mud-brick superstructure of the Type ID Helwan tomb 1.H.4.
• Figure 137 The unlined pit of the Type ID Helwan tomb 150.H.5 and its superstructure.
• Figure 138 The Type ID Helwan tomb 1502.H.2
• Figure 139 Tomb 1371.H.2 at Helwan, with its stone slab floor.
• Figure 141 The deep substructure of the Type ID tomb 407.H.4 at Helwan.
• Figure 140 The Type ID tomb 426.H.4 at Helwan, with its second internal brick liner that supported a deep recessed roof and backfill.
• Figure 142 Tomb 355.H.4 at Helwan which had a double roof, the lower one supported on internal ledges.
• Figure 143 The Type ID tomb 1473.H.2 at Helwan showing the raised magazine level on the south and the tomb’s palace façade superstructure.
• Figure 144 Helwan tomb 785.H.5 with its second storey of magazines.
• Figure 145 Tomb 649.H.5 at Helwan with its high level staircase leading to the top of the burial chamber and magazines.
• Figure 146 The Type ID stone lined tomb 385.H.4 at Helwan with its 0.4 m thick stone slab liner.
• Figure 147 The stone lined burial chamber of tomb 385.H.4 with its enormous limestone orthostats. The robbers’ passage can be seen on the left side of the pit.
• Figure 148 The stone lined tomb 40.H.3 (Köhler’s Op. 1/1)
• Figure 149 Plan and section of the stone lined Type ID Helwan tomb 1.H.3.
• Figure 150 The stone clad substructure of Helwan 1.H.3, the multiple portcullises can be seen in position on the staircase.
• Figure 151 The stone slab rood of Helwan tomb 60.H.1 after excavation.
• Figure 152 The enormous stone lined Helwan tomb 654.H.4.The post holes that may have been part of a shrine are clearly visible.
• Figure 153 Plan of the Type ID tomb N 1581 from Naga el-Deir, with the remains of its superstructure.
• Figure 154 Section of tomb N 1581 from Naga el-Deir showing the deep limestone pit, into which the burial chamber was dug, and the overlying thick mud and wood roof.
• Figure 155 The shallow Type ID mud-brick lined stairway tomb M1 from Mahasna.
• Figure 156 The mud-brick lined tomb b 91 at El-Amrah.
• Figure 157 Plan and section of the Type IC mud-brick corbel roofed tomb N 1586 from Naga el-Deir.
• Figure 158 Plan and section of the Type II tomb MO1 at Abu Roash.
• Figure 159 Plan and Section of the Type II tomb MO2 at Abu Roash.
• Figure 160 The early Type IIA tomb S 3121 at Saqqara.
• Figure 161 The early Type IIA tomb S 3120 at Saqqara.
• Figure 163 Abusir Type IIA tomb 13 C-3/13 B-1 with its reinforced stone lined roof and robber’s tunnel.
• Figure 162 The Type IIA tomb 10B-4 at Abusir with portcullis stone in place.
• Figure 164 The Type IIA tomb S 3042 at Saqqara with its three subterranean chambers and two magazines.
• Figure 165 The Type IIA tomb S 3477 at Saqqara.
• Figure 166 S 3024 an ‘early ‘Type IIA stairway tomb at Saqqara with its mud-brick partitioned burial chamber set 12.5 m down f om the surface.
• Figure 168 Composite image of the substructure and superstructure of tomb S 2302.
• Figure 167 A large unidentified Type IIA ‘house type’ substructure at Saqqara.
• Figure 169 Type IIA Helwan tomb 255.H.8 with its robber’s tunnel.
• Figure 170 Plan and section of the deep Type IIA Helwan tomb 25.H.5.
• Figure 171 The multichambered Type IIA Helwan tomb 505.H.4. The robber’s tunnel can be seen on the right.
• Figure 172 Plan view of Helwan tomb 25.H.4 (Köhler’s Op. 2/1).
• Figure 173 The Type IIA tomb Op. 4/123 at Helwan. The robber’s tunnel is at the north end and starts outside the edge of the superstructure.
• Figure 174 The Type IIA Grave 240 at Kafr Amar.
• Figure 175 Plan and section of tomb 771 at the Bashkatib Cemetery with its portcullis and 0.75 m thick limestone roof.
• Figure 176 Plan and section of tomb 821 at the Bashkatib Cemetery, Lahun with its thin 0.15 m thick limestone roof.
• Figure 177 The type IIA tomb 560 at Sedment.
• Figure 178 The Type IIA burial chambers of tombs 562, 429 and 507 at Qau.
• Figure 179 The Type IIA tomb 3112 at Spur 5 in Cemetery 3100 at Badari.
• Figure 180 The Type IIA tomb 205 at Armant.
• Figure 181 The intact tomb 64 from Cemetery 24 at El-Kab.
• Figure 182 The Type IIA + IIA-C tomb S 3050 from Saqqara, showing the Type IIA burial chamber and descent in section. (NB. The section drawing is reversed by the draughtsman)
• Figure 183 Two of the three Third Dynasty Type IIA tombs at Badari – tombs 3227 and 3228
• Figure 184 The Type IIA + IIA ‘twin’ mastaba N573 and N 587 in Cemetery 500–900 at Naga el-Deir
• Figure 185 The multichambered Type IIA tomb R1 at Reqaqnah.
• Figure 186 The multichambered Type IIA tomb R 40 at Reqaqnah.
• Figure 187 The enormous Type IIA tomb K1 at Beit Khallaf with its ‘U’ shaped stairway, six portcullises and stone lined burial chamber.
• Figure 188 The Type IIA + IIA ‘twin mastaba’ tomb K2 at Beit Khallaf.
• Figure 189 Stairway tomb 353 at Ballas.
• Figure 190 The Type IIB ‘deep’ staircase tomb Op. 4/62 at Helwan.
• Figure 191 The substructure of the Type IIB ‘deep’ staircase tomb N561b from Cemetery 500-900 at Naga el-Deir.
• Figure 192 Plan and section of the Type IIA-C stair-shaft Covington’s Tomb (also known as Tomb no. 1 or Mastaba T) at Giza wi h its solid mud-brick superstructure and enclosure wall.
• Figure 193 The Type IIA-C stair-shaft tomb of Hesyra at Saqqara with its differing substructure levels and solid mud-brick superstructure.
• Figure 194 The Type IIA-C + IIC ‘twin mastaba’ tomb S 3070 at Saqqara, showing southern shaft with burial chambers on two levels on the left and northern stair-shaft on the right with its single chamber.
• Figure 195 The Type IIA-C tomb N 593 from Naga el-Deir.
• Figure 196 Plan and section of the Type IIA-C stair-shaft tomb AS 33 from Abusir showing its multichambered substructure.
• Figure 197 Section looking west of the twin stair-shafts and burial chambers of AS 20, the tomb of Hetepi, at Abusir.
• Figure 198 Tomb 256.H.8, a typical Second Dynasty Type IIC shaft tomb from Helwan; the robbers’ tunnel into the burial chamber is clearly visible. (Drawn by the author after Saad 1957, pln. G)
• Figure 199 The Second Dynasty Type IIC shaft tombs 720 and 768 from the Bashkatib cemetery at Lahun
• Figure 200 The rock-cut burial chamber of the Third Dynasty Type IIC tomb AS 54 from Abusir.
• Figure 201 The Third Dynasty Type IIC + IIC tomb S 3518 at Saqqara. The southern shaft is now part of the baboon galleries.
• Figure 202 The Third Dynasty Type IIC + IIC tomb S 3517 at Saqqara.
• Figure 203 Tomb 287.H.6 at Helwan, with its stone lined shaft and burial chamber.
• Figure 204 The Third Dynasty Type IIC tombs 769 and 735 at Bashkatib Cemetery in Lahun.
• Figure 205 Plan and section of the early Fourth Dynasty Type IIC ‘Lake of Abusir tomb 1’.
• Figure 206 The Type IIC + IIA-C tomb of Ity at Abusir showing section of Type IIC southern shaft and burial chamber. The northern substructure is unfinished. The external walls of the superstructures are mud-brick, with an internal wall of limestone 0.8–1
• Figure 207 The corbelled burial chamber and brick and stone lined ‘T’ shaped shaft of tomb no. 1 at Dahshur North, which was located amongst De Morgan’s ‘Mastabas du sud’.
• Figure 208 The Type IIC tomb DAS 9 (Ipy) at Dahshur South. The differing strata in the underlying geology can be clearly seen in the substructure section.
• Figure 209 The deep stone lined and saddle roofed burial chamber and shaft of DAS 32-4 (Iinefer) at Dahshur South.
• Figure 211 Plan and section of Mastaba II/1, which is attributed to Prince Netjer-Aperef.
• Figure 210 Plan and section of Mastaba I/1 in the ‘Lepsius Field’ at Dahshur.
• Figure 212 Enlarged view of the stone lined burial chamber and shaft of Mastaba II/1 showing the robber’s tunnel penetrating the shaft and burial chamber roof.
• Figure 213 The stone lined burial chamber of Mastaba II/1 at Dahshur showing the breached portcullis.
• Figure 214 Plan and section of Mastaba I/2 at Dahshur. The robber’s tunnel can be seen in the stone floor.
• Figure 215 Plan of the Type III + IIC ‘twin’ Mastaba No. 16 belonging to Nefermaat and Atet at Meidum.
• Figure 216 The burial chamber of Atet in Mastaba no. 16 at Meidum, together with its portcullis (Not to scale).
• Figure 217 Plan of the Type IIC + IIC ‘twin’ Mastaba No. 6 of Rahotep and Nefert at Meidum.
• Figure 218 Sections of the Type IIC shafts and burial chambers of Rahotep (on the left) and Nefert (right) in Mastaba No. 6 at Meidum (drawings of different scales)
• Figure 219 The burial chambers of Ranefer (left and centre) and the shaft and burial chamber of his spouse (right) from the Type IIC + IIC ‘twin’ Mastaba no. 9 at Meidum (drawings of different scales).
• Figure 220 Plan and section of the burial chamber and shaft from Mastaba No. 4, (Heneken) at Meidum.
• Figure 221 Plan and section of the Type IIC + IIC Mastaba No. 7 at Meidum.
• Figure 222 The burial chamber and shaft of the Type IIC Mastaba 416 at Meidum.
• Figure 223 The southern masonry lined burial chamber and rock-cut shaft of the Type IIC + IIC + IIC Mastaba No. 8 at Meidum.
• Figure 224 The masonry lined and corbelled burial chamber of Mastaba No. 1 at Meidum, which was accessed by a brick lined shaf , with a stone built base and portcullis emplacement.
• Figure 225 The Type IIC tomb 63 in the Far Western Cemetery of Meidum. Showing a typical stone lined burial chamber and shaft arrangement with portcullis.
• Figure 226 Unlined Type IIC gable roofed rock-cut burial chamber and shaft of tomb no. 55 in the Far Western Cemetery at Meidum.
• Figure 227 Plan and section of The Type IIC tomb N739 at Cemetery 500-900 in Naga el-Deir showing the shaft’s brick lining.
• Figure 228 The Type IIC Mastaba of Kamena at El-Kab, with its sandstone lined burial chamber (drawings of different scales). (Quibell 1896, pls. I.4 and XXIII)
• Figure 229 The stone built burial chamber of the Type III tomb A at Meidum. The descending passage has a stone step ‘H’, which would form a stop for the plug-stones used to seal it.
• Figure 230 The Type III North Peribolous tomb at Meidum, showing a rock-cut burial chamber that had been dug in the end face o the trench, which contained the stone lined and inclined entrance corridor.
• Figure 231 Sections and plan of the Type III stone built corbelled burial chamber of Nefermaat in Mastaba no. 16 at Meidum, sitting in its pit and encased with a protective liquid mud and stone block surround. The blocking to the chamber’s entrance can b
• Figure 232 The Type III substructure of Mastaba 17 sitting at the bottom of its pit at Meidum with its enormous stone ashlar roof and plug-stone blocked corridor. The robbers’ tunnel can be seen at the end of the corridor.
• Figure 233 The robbers’ tunnel into Mastaba 17; the block had been weakened by fire before being smashed. (Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910, pl. X.5)
• Figure 234 Internal view of the mud-brick lined stairwell of the tomb of Den, with its restored wooden roof.
• Figure 235 The mud-brick lined stairway descending into the tomb of Den. The subsidiary graves originally ran over and covered the staircase.
• Figure 236 The stairway and mud-brick blocking of the tomb of Adjib exposed by Petrie.
• Figure 237 The recently re-excavated mud-brick lined ramp leading to the burial chamber of Semerkhet.
• Figure 238 The mud-brick staircase of the tomb of Qa’a.
• The remains of the limestone portcullis can be seen at the base of the stairs.
• Figure 239 The stone roofing beams over the trench cut stairway ‘C’ of the Type IIA tomb of Hotepsekhemwy/Raneb at Saqqara. The entrance to magazine C200 can be seen on the left.
• Figure 240 The present entrance to the tomb of Ninetjer, which is via the second portcullis shaft on the south-east corner of he mastaba of Nebkahor Idu.
• Figure 241 The rough ramp leading down to the northern entrance of the tomb of Khasekhemwy, as viewed from the west. (Dreyer et al. 1998, Taf. 13b) Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Figure 242 The two corridors branching from the stairwell in the core of the Layer Pyramid. The upper passage continues until it reaches a cul-de-sac; the lower is a parallel passage leading to the burial chamber.
• Figure 243 The descending corridor and substructure of the Pyramid of Meidum. The large slabs over the entrance can be clearly seen.
• Figure 244 The inaccessible western entrance to the Bent Pyramid (marked by the arrow) 33.32 m up from its base.
• Figure 245 The Type ID tomb S 2105 at Saqqara, showing the stairway entrance concealed under the thick mud-brick walls of the superstructure.
• Figure 246 The orientation of stairways in Type ID tombs at Helwan.
• Figure 247 The stairways of the Helwan Type ID tombs 1.H.3 (left) and 701.H.3 (right) possibly placed to avoid other tombs i the necropolis.
• Figure 248 Limestone beams protecting the stairwell of the Type IIA tomb S 3121 at Saqqara.
• Figure 249 The Type IIA tomb 68.H.5 from Helwan with its external placed stairway.
• Figure 251 The stairway of the Type IIA tomb Op. 4/4 at Helwan descending within the perimeter of its superstructure. (Drawn by the author after Köhler 2003b, fig. 2)
• Figure 250 Longitudinal section of the entrance of the Type IIA 25.H.4 (Köhler’s Op. 2/1) at Helwan, showing the stairway cut into the slope of the wadi.
• Figure 252 Unpublished tombs with superstructures at Helwan. Type IIA stairway tombs 463.H.4, 464.H.4, 612.H.4, 636.H.4, 74.H.5, 8.H.5, 60.H.5, 71.H.5, 501.H.4 and 28.H.5. Type IIB ‘deep staircase’ tomb 70.H.5 and Type IIC shaft tombs 11.H.5, 666.H.4 and
• Figure 253 The Type IIA tombs N 574 and N 599 at Cemetery 500-900 at Naga el-Deir, showing their stairways protected by their superstructures.
• Figure 254 The unusual subterranean stairway of tomb N 689 from Cemetery 500-900 at Naga el-Deir.
• Figure 255 The Type IIB ‘deep’ staircase tomb Op. 4/103 at Helwan.
• Figure 256 The Type IIB ‘deep’ staircase tomb Op. 4/148 at Helwan, showing the outline of its superstructure.
• Figure 257 Section of the Type IIA + IIA-C tomb S 3050 at Saqqara, showing the stair-shaft.
• Figure 258 The meandering stairways of the stair-shafts of the Type IIA-C + IIA-C tomb of Hetepi (AS20) at Abusir enclosed i its mud-brick superstructure, with its inner protective limestone wall and core of limestone chips and sand.
• Figure 259 Enlarged view of the northern meandering stairway in the tomb of Hetepi (AS20) at Abusir.
• Figure 260 The stone superstructure and shaft mouth of the Third Dynasty Type IIC ‘Inner Mastaba’ at Nazlet Batran (After Kromer 1991, Pln. 2) Courtesy of the Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
• Figure 261 Photograph of the damaged superstructure and stone lined shaft mouth of the ‘Inner Mastaba’ at Nazlet Batran. (Kromer 1991, Taf. 4, fig. 1) Courtesy of the Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
• Figure 262 The stone lined shaft of the Third Dynasty Type IIC tomb 287.H.6 at Helwan. The 4.5 m long × 1.1 m high × 0.3 m thick orthostats on the burial chamber side of the shaft can be clearly seen at the top of the photograph. (Saad 1969, pl. 18) Copyr
• Figure 263 The deep rubble filled shafts III and VI under the Step Pyramid. On the left, the rubble of large stones and clay filled the shaft leading to shaft III containing the burial of a ‘royal’ family member. On the right, the ‘clayey soil’ filled sha
• Figure 264 The rubble filled stairwell of the South Tomb of the Step Pyramid.
• Figure 265 The 5 m thick rubble filled descending corridor of the pyramid of Sekhemkhet.
• Figure 266 Large rocks blocking the entrance stairway of the Type ID pit tomb N1581 at Cemetery 1500 in Naga el-Deir. Further down, a mud-brick blocking can be seen at the base of the stairs.
• Figure 267 Covington’s sketch section of the Type IIA-C Covington’s Tomb or Mastaba V. The artist’s impression of the heavyweight rubble blocking can be seen at the top of the stair-shaft.
• Figure 268 The heavy rubble blocking still barring access to the passage leading to the burial chamber of the Third Dynasty Type IIC ‘Inner Mastaba’ at Nazlet Batran.
• Figure 269 The loose mud-brick walling and wood ‘portcullis’ blocking the entrance to the tomb of King Adjib at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 270 The entrance doorway into the burial chamber of King Qa‘a blocked with mud-brick.
• Figure 271 The in-depth mud-brick blocking of the stairway of the Type ID tomb S 3500 at Saqqara.
• Figure 272 The mud-brick ‘secondary’ door blocking behind the portcullis of the intact Type IIA tomb S 3477 at Saqqara. (Emery 1962, pl. 5b) Courtesy of the Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten.
• Figure 273 The Type IIA tomb 806 at the Bashkatib Cemetery in Lahun, showing the entrance and loculi blocked with mud-brick.
• Figure 274 The mud-brick blocking in front of the vaulted burial chamber of the Lake of Abusir tomb 1.
• Figure 275 The remains of the masonry blocking the stairwell at its juncture with the shaft in the Step Pyramid, looking north. (Lauer 1936, pl. XVIII.1) © IFAO.
• Figure 276 The masonry entrance blocking of the descending corridor of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet looking north.
• Figure 277 The masonry blocking of the burial chamber entrance of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet.
• Figure 278 The ‘end on’ flagstones used to block the passage of the Type IIA tomb S 2171 at Saqqara.
• Figure 279 The ‘end on’ flagstones in the passageway of S 2498 in situ with broken slabs from its roof lying above it.
• Figure 280 The masonry blocking of the entrance to the burial chamber of S 2405, the tomb of Hesyra.
• Figure 281 The masonry blocked entrance to the burial chamber of Nefermaat in Mastaba No. 16 at Meidum.
• Figure 282 The wooden door blocking the entrance to the passage of Nefermaat, behind which the stone blocking continued up into the passage. (Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1912, pl. XVI.I) Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.
• Figure 283 The broken remains of the limestone portcullis in the tomb of Qa‘a
• Figure 284 The various routes taken by tomb robbers as they tunnelled through the substructure of the tomb of Qa‘a having bypassed the portcullis.
• Figure 285 The granite plug in position in the roof of the granite vault of the Step Pyramid of Saqqara.
• Figure 286 The enormous 3 tonne granite plug used to seal the granite vault in the Step Pyramid – the notches for the lowering ropes can be seen at its head.
• Figure 287 The granite vault in the South Tomb and its multi segmented granite plug assembly.
• Figure 289 The unusual sloping emplacement of the portcullises in the Bent Pyramid.
• Figure 290 The closed portcullis in the western corridor of the Bent Pyramid looking west, with the robbers’ hole in its upper half.
• Figure 288 Section and plan of the portcullis emplacements and passages at the end of the western descending corridor in the Bent Pyramid. The 4 m deep pit in the
• Figure 291 The exposed bottom corner of the portcullis in the Bent Pyramid, after the passage floor had been removed. The horizontal black line across its base shows where the original floor covered the face of the slab and would have made it difficult to
• Figure 292 A typical twin portcullis arrangement found in tomb MO11 from Cemetery M at Abu Roash. The top half of the portcullis has been cut down by tomb robbers. The rebates in the slabs suggest they have been cut down so that they can fit the grooved e
• Figure 293 How the two portcullis stones in tomb MO2 may have originally been tied together.
• Figure 294 Plan and section of tomb MO10 at Abu Roash.
• Figure 295 Explanatory sketches of the locking mechanism for the portcullis in tomb MO10 at Abu Roash. The locking slot ‘a’ is seen in the photograph below.
• Figure 296 The floor above the shaft in tomb MO10 at Abu Roash. The slot that forms part of the floor locking mechanism for the portcullis is easily discernible as a slot in the centre of the picture.
• Figure 297 The damaged second portcullis at the base of the rock-cut stairway in tomb S 3035 (Hemaka) at Saqqara. The grooves for ropes run right under the base, suggesting that its rope holes may have been at the top, as in the photograph on the right.
• Figure 298 The door to the putative burial chamber of Hemaka blocked by a 2 tonne portcullis. The holes and grooves for loweri g ropes can be clearly seen.
• Figure 299 The portcullis in tomb X at Saqqara in its emplacement. The drilled holes for lowering ropes are at its base.
• Figure 300 The twin portcullises in situ at the base of the stairway in tomb S 3500. In this case the holes for its lowering ropes are at the top of the lower stone.
• Figure 301 The portcullis of the Type ID tomb S 2105 in situ.
• Figure 302 The portcullis of the Type ID tomb 665.H.3 at Helwan with a single hole drilled in its base for its lowering rope.
• Figure 303 Views south and north of the two portcullises in the stone lined Type ID tomb 40.H.3 (Op. 1/1) at Helwan, which we e set before the magazines and burial chamber.
• Figure 304 The penultimate portcullis from the stone lined Type ID tomb 1.H.3 at Helwan, the four holes for the lowering ropes can be seen in its base. (Saad 1947, pl. LXVIII)
• Figure 305 The ‘dumbbell’ shaped portcullis emplacement of Petrie’s ‘Unknown Tomb’ at Giza’ and its portcullis.
• Figure 306 The portcullis blocking the entrance to the substructure of the Type IIA tomb S 3477 at Saqqara. The tomb was found intact and the damage to the stone is attributable to Emery’s workmen who cut through it on his instructions. (Emery 1962, pl. 5
• Figure 307 The substructures of assorted Type IIA and IIA-C ‘house type’ substructures at Saqqara with their portcullis emplacements marked with a letter ‘P’.
• Figure 308 The unusual notches in the portcullis from the Type IIA tomb 809.H.3 at Helwan, which were designed to permit lowering ropes to be wrapped around the stone.
• Figure 309 The crude portcullis blocking the entrance to the Type IIA tomb 505.H.4 at Helwan. The 0.5 m measuring stick sugges s it is over 2 m high by at least 1.5 m wide.
• Figure 310 The portcullis in the Type IIA tomb Op. 4/4 at Helwan; the robber’s have broken the top left corner and penetrated hrough the secondary mud-brick blocking behind.
• Figure 311 Petrie’s field notebook sketch of the pentagonal slab that protected the entrance of the Type IIA tomb 568 at Sedme t.
• Figure 312 The barrel vaulted cross-walls that formed the ‘shafts’ for the portcullises of tomb R1 at Reqaqnah. The crudely cu 3.2 tonne slab can be seen at the base of the stairs and on the right hand photograph.
• Figure 313 The huge 14.7–22.5 tonne portcullis stone from Mastaba K2 at Beit Khallaf.
• Figure 314 The damaged portcullis in Mastaba II/1 at Dahshur. The grooves for the lowering ropes can be clearly seen in its base.
• Figure 315 A selection of Type IIC shaft tombs in plan and section from the Far Western Cemetery at Meidum. Their portcullises have been supported in the open position by piles of small stones.
• Figure 316 Tipping a portcullis with a lever to enable the underlying supporting blocks to be removed.
• Figure 317 The ‘bearing block’ found by Hassan at Giza, over which ropes could be run, and which acted as a primitive pulley.
• Figure 318 The entrance to the descending corridor of the Pyramid of Meidum, showing the tapered blockwork designed to accommodate the plug-stones in the entrance.
• Figure 319 The descending corridor in the Pyramid of Meidum. The ‘D’ shaped sockets for metal bars that may have supported the first closure are indicated by the arrows.
• Figure 320 Section and plan of the descending corridor and falling plug-stone arrangement in the satellite pyramid associated with the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur.
• Figure 321 One of the undescended plug-stones still in the corridor in the satellite pyramid of the Bent Pyramid.
• Figure 322 The descending corridor of the ‘South Tomb’ in the Peribolous at Meidum, which may have been a satellite pyramid, as envisioned by Maragioglio and Rinaldi. Its descending corridor was closed with two layers of plug-stones, the lowest of which w
• Figure 323 The plug-stones of Mastaba No. 17 at Meidum still in situ projecting beyond the end of the tomb’s descending corridor.
• Figure 324 Engel’s reconstruction of the superstructure of the tomb of King Qa‘a, which probably overlaid his substructure directly. Further out it was surrounded by subsidiary graves, each perhaps with their own individual superstructures.
• Figure 325 The tomb of Semerkhet at Umm el-Qaab covered by its excavators with a modern protective ‘tumulus’ of sand consolida ed by limestone chips.
• Figure 326 Reconstruction of the putative superstructure of Kings Hotepsekhemwy/Raneb at Saqqara looking south. (Lacher 2008, Abb. 4) Courtesy of C. Lacher-Raschdorff)
• Figure 327 Dreyer’s reconstruction of the tumulus/superstructure over the tomb of Khasekhemwy at Umm el-Qaab. As can be seen, he superstructure would have left much of the substructure unprotected.
• Figure 328 Lauer’s diagram of the construction phases of the Step Pyramid of Djoser. (Lauer 1962, fig. 20) © IFAO.
• Figure 329 Section of the first stage (M1) of the mastaba of King Djoser at Saqqara looking west. The original descent and co struction pit are shown open, as they might have been during construction.
• Figure 330 Section of the first phase of the pyramid (P1) of Djoser at Saqqara, looking west.
• Figure 331 Section of the Step Pyramid in its completed state looking south. Showing approximate dimensions from the edge of he shaft to the closest point on the superstructure; perimeter of the pyramid to the top of the shaft; and burial chamber to the
• Figure 332 Section looking west of the superstructure over Djoser’s ‘South Tomb’ in the Step Pyramid complex at Saqqara.
• Figure 333 The exposed north-west corner of the unfinished pyramid of Sekhemkhet.
• Figure 334 Section through the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet looking west, with approximate distances from perimeter of pyramid to burial chamber.
• Figure 335 The sloping accretion layers in the unfinished Layer Pyramid at Zawiyet el-Aryan
• Figure 336 Sectional reconstruction of the Layer Pyramid looking west. Approximate dimensions to the burial chamber from the perimeter of the pyramid are shown.
• Figure 337 The 17 m high remains of the Brick Pyramid at Abu Roash as viewed from the south-east by Lepsius in 1842.
• Figure 338 Schematic section of the Brick Pyramid at Abu Roash looking west. The knoll, surmounted by a brick nucleus and medulla, formed the core for either a step pyramid, or less likely, a ‘true’ pyramid.
• Figure 339 Section through the Pyramid of Meidum looking south, showing the three phases of the pyramid’s construction.
• Figure 340 Section drawing of the Pyramid of Meidum looking west showing the three phases of construction and the minimum depth of protection offered by the pyramid to the burial chamber.
• Figure 341 Section drawing of the outer cladding layer applied to the lower half of the Bent Pyramid, together with its dimensions.
• Figure 342 Section drawings of the Bent Pyramid looking south and west, showing minimum depths of protection offered by the py amid to its ‘substructure’.
• Figure 343 Section drawings of the Red Pyramid looking west showing minimum depths of protection offered by the pyramid to its ‘substructure’.
• Figure 344 The ‘shaft’ leading down through the massive superstructure of the Type IB grave 94 at Tell el-Farkha, which was backfilled after the burial was made.
• Figure 345 The remains of the palace façade walls of the superstructure of Mastaba V at Nazlet Batran.
• Figure 346 The plan of the large palace façade superstructure of the Type IC Mastaba V at Nazlet Batran.
• Figure 347 The excavation of the Type IC tomb S 3357 at Saqqara, which gives a sense of the scale of these structures.
• Figure 348 Emery’s axonometric reconstruction of the superstructure and stocked magazines of the Type IC tomb S 3503 at Saqqara.
• Figure 349 The outline of the palace façade superstructure of the Type IC tomb N 1506 from Cemetery 1500 at Naga el-Deir.
• Figure 350 The Naqada ‘Royal Tomb’ with its palace façade walls enclosing the inner core is (in black). The door blockings are shown in lighter tones.
• Figure 351 De Morgan’s perspective view of the Naqada ‘Royal Tomb’.
• Figure 352 The remains of the massive superstructure and enclosure wall over the Type IC grave 55 at Tell el-Farkha. Its footp int overhang from the substructure’s edge is approximately 2 m.
• Figure 353 The mud-brick palace façade of the superstructure of the Type IC tomb 423.H.9 at Helwan.
• Figure 354 The interior of the Type IC tomb 423.H.9 at Helwan, which would have been filled with sand, gravel or rubble. The recess for the pit’s roof can be clearly seen.
• Figure 355 The remains of the superstructure and substructure of the Type ID Mastaba IV at Abu Ghurab.
• Figure 356 The remains of the superstructure of the Type ID Mastaba V at Abu Ghurab showing the offering chapel on its eastern face and the reduced 1 m footprint overhang created by the opening up of the chapel. In the far left corner, what may have possi
• Figure 357 The exposed stepped inner superstructure (phase ‘A’) of the Type IC tomb S 3038 (Nebitka) at Saqqara, seen behind the outer palace
• façade walls of the final phase ‘C’ during Emery’s excavations.
• Figure 358 The fragmentary palace façade superstructure of the Type ID Tomb N 1514 at Cemetery 1500 at Naga el-Deir.
• Figure 359 The subterranean burial chamber of tomb MO7 at Cemetery M at Abu Roash; orientated so that it was completely protec ed by its overlying superstructure.
• Figure 360 The Type IIC tomb S 2307 at Saqqara, the substructure can be seen to be well protected by the superstructure, with a good footprint overhang.
• Figure 361 Food storage jars and utensils set in the unknown core filling of the superstructure of an un-named Second Dynasty omb.
• Figure 362 The Type IIA tomb S 3040 at Saqqara, with its substructure and stairway concealed under the eastern edge of the inner chapel wall facing the corridor of its large mud-brick superstructure.
• Figure 363 The generous protection offered by the superstructure of the Type IIB deep staircase tomb N 561b at Cemetery 500-90 at Naga el-Deir.
• Figure 364 The gravel filled mud-brick superstructures of the Type IIA-C stair-shaft tombs M1 and M3 at Saqqara.
• Figure 365 The massive walls and multi-compartmented superstructure of the Type IIA-C + IIA-C tomb S 2407 at Saqqara, overlying its ‘house type’ substructure.
• Figure 366 The 43 m long solid mud-brick superstructure of the tomb of Hesyra, S 2405 at Saqqara, showing its underlying subst ucture.
• Figure 367 The 9.5 m long solid mud-brick superstructure of the Type IIA-C tomb M2 at Saqqara, whose footprint is just 4.3% of the area of that of Hesyra.
• Figure 368 The mud-brick palace façade superstructure of tomb 274 at the rock necropolis in El-Kab with its two magazines and internal stair-shaft. The eastern magazine contained beer jars.
• Figure 369 The mud-brick palace façade superstructure of tomb 274 atop the 50 m high Rock Necropolis at El-Kab.
• Figure 370 The Helwan Type IIC tomb Op. 4/115, whose shaft was completely protected by its overlying superstructure.
• Figure 371 The remains of the solid mud-brick superstructure of the Type IIC tomb M16 at Saqqara, which probably concealed its underlying shaft totally with its 19 m2 footprint.
• Figure 373 The remains of the superstructure of DAS 32-1 (Iinefer) at Dahshur South, drawn by Barsanti.
• Figure 372 The limestone clad superstructure of DAS 25/1 at Dahshur South.
• Figure 374 The superstructure of the Type IIC + IIC + IIC Mastaba no. 8 at Meidum. The robbers’ tunnel ‘A’ into the burial chamber is marked on the plan.
• Figure 375 The enormous decorated stone monoliths lining the chapel of Nefermaat in the mud-brick superstructure of tomb no. 1 at Meidum with inset, a sketch showing the approximate weights of the slabs.
• Figure 376 Cross section through Mastaba No. 17 at Meidum. Overlying the substructure already built in its rock-cut pit, the s ructure was built in a larger overlying pit cut in the gravel, which went down to the bedrock for security and stability. The co
• Figure 377 The ‘great pit’ in Mastaba 17 at Meidum, which was created by Wainwright to enable his men to work safely within its 100,000 tonne loose gravel core.
• Figure 378 Flow chart/timeline showing the interrelated phases of security features in Egyptian tombs from the Early Dynastic Period to the end of the reign of Sneferu.
• Figure 1 Sketch section of the typical arrangement of stone slabs over the graves at Site 117 at Jebel Sahaba
• Figure 2 A shallow pit burial at Merimde with the body in a contracted position.
• Figure 3 Assorted Badarian graves.
• Figure 4 Graves with ‘mounding’ in 1918 at the Canadian military cemetery at Brookwood.
• Figure 5 Burials at el-Omari Cemetery F, showing heaps of stones covering the graves.
• Figure 6 Burial with grave goods at Maadi, grave No. MA45.
• Figure 7 Rectangular shaped graves from Naqada.
• Figure 8 Wood and stick ‘roofing’ (which Reisner describes as a ‘tray’) in tomb 612 at Mesaeed, which by its pottery dates to Naqada I-II (For the pottery see MFA Boston Accession numbers: 13-3-1140 and 13-3-1167)
• Figure 9 A typical section through a late Naqada II grave lined with mud-brick. It is shown here with a wood and brick roof, covered by a mound.
• Figure 11 Tomb 26 at Cemetery HK6 at Hierakonpolis, the ledge for supporting the roofing beams can be clearly seen, along with the surrounding postholes.
• Figure 10 Artist’s impression of a lightweight superstructure over tomb 1 at Locality HK6 at Hierakonpolis – this particular example dates to Naqada IIIA.
• Figure 12 Tomb U-j at Umm el-Qaab showing its thick mud-brick liners and their position below the ancient desert levels.
• Figure 13 Tomb No. 85 at El-Kab, showing the large sandstone slabs laid over the grave, the pottery dates the burial to Naqada IIIA2.
• Figure 14 Tomb 6 in Cemetery 137 at Seyala, showing a sandstone slab in position over the grave.
• Figure 15 Grave 3 at Tunqala West with large 2 m × 0.8 m sandstone slab over pit.
• Figure 17 Cross section of tomb no. 8 at Kom el-Ahmar (Naqada III) showing large stone slabs blocking access to the burial niche.
• Figure 16 Tomb L23 at Qustul, showing the stone blocking to the burial chamber.
• Figure 19 Plan of tomb 2 at Locality 6 Hierakonpolis.
• Figure 18 Tomb 2 at Locality 6 Hierakonpolis, showing the niche in the base and side and one of its associated ‘portcullis’ stones propped up at one end.
• Figure 20 Tomb B0/1/2 the tomb of King Iry-Hor at Umm el-Qaab
• Figure 21 Tomb B7/9 the grave of King Ka.
• Figure 22 Tomb B17/18, the grave of King Narmer.
• (Kaiser and Dreyer 1982, Taf. 56c)
• Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Figure 23 Tomb B10/15/19 the grave of King Hor-Aha.
• Figure 24 The roof arrangement in tomb B10/15/19, the grave of King Hor-Aha.
• Figure 26 The re-excavated substructure of Djer in modern times, with the mud-brick ‘tongue’ walls clearly visible.
• Figure 25 The tomb of Djer at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 27 The tomb of Djet at Umm-el Qaab.
• Figure 28 The recently re-excavated battered mud-brick retaining wall surrounding the hidden tumulus in the tomb of Djet.
• Figure 29 Dreyer’s hypothetical reconstruction of the concealed mound in the tomb of King Djet at Umm el-Qaab. Above it is Dreyer’s reconstruction of a mud-brick clad sand tumulus.
• Figure 30 The tomb of Queen Merneith at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 31 The Type ID tomb of Den at Umm-el-Qaab with its descending stairway and surrounding subsidiary graves.
• Figure 32 Plan view of the core of the tomb of King Den, showing the mud-brick liner, burial chamber entrance and portcullis emplacement; together with the suggested arrangement of the internal wooden liner, wooden shrine and its supporting beams and fram
• Figure 33 . The restored burial chamber of the tomb of King Den, showing the entrance and the beams that supported the shrine and roof.
• Figure 34 The reconstructed beams and roof that supported the putative tumulus in the tomb of King Den.
• Figure 35 The Type ID tomb of Adjib at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 36 Plan of the tomb of Semerkhet at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 38 The tomb of Qa’a at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 37 The re-excavated tomb of Semerkhet from the south.
• Figure 39 Plan of the tomb of Qa’a, showing the building phases.
• Figure 40 The layout of the roofing beams and hidden tumulus in the tomb of Qa’a
• Figure 41 Section through the tomb of Qa’a showing the arrangement of the main pit, roof and possible inner hidden tumulus. The shallower magazines and subsidiary graves are to the sides.
• Figure 42 The subterranean tomb of Hotepsekhemwy/Raneb at Saqqara.
• Figure 43 Section looking west of the tomb of Hotepsekhemwy/Raneb with a reconstruction of the superstructure and the tomb’s building phases.
• Figure 44 The tomb of Ninetjer at Saqqara.
• Figure 45 The main corridor in the tomb of Ninetjer.
• Figure 46 The Type IC tomb of Peribsen at Umm el-Qaab. The partly blocked entrance can be seen in the bottom right corner,
• Figure 47 Plan of the tomb of Peribsen, showing chambers, doorways and blockings. The entrance slope is in the top left corner.
• Figure 48 The mud-brick substructure of the tomb of Khasekhemwy at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 49 The tomb of Khasekhemwy set 7 m beneath the desert at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 50 The concealed limestone burial chamber in the tomb of Khasekhemwy at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 51 The tomb of Khasekhemwy at Umm el-Qaab, showing a) the remains of the roof, and b) the reconstruction of the timber roofing.
• Figure 52 Cross section of the Step Pyramid facing west, showing the substructure and stages of the superstructure’s developme t.
• Figure 53 Cross section of the Step Pyramid looking south, showing passages running from shafts I-XI on the east and the initial mastaba and pyramid stages
• Figure 54 Plan of the Step Pyramid and its complex substructure of passages and robbers’ tunnels
• Figure 55 Sections through the shaft of the Step Pyramid showing details of the blocking in the descending passage and the gra ite vault.
• Figure 56 Galleries I–XI under the Step Pyramid and the stages of its superstructure’s development in plan over the underlying substructure.
• Figure 57 Plan and cross-section of the South Tomb at the Step Pyramid.
• Figure 58 Cross-section of the shaft in the South Tomb showing the vault, manoeuvring chamber and limestone monoliths for pro ecting the chamber.
• Figure 60 The pyramid complex of Sekhemkhet general plan and section.
• Figure 59 The enormous ‘man-sized’ stones used for the ‘rubble’ filling in the shaft of the South Tomb.
• Figure 62 Cross section of the substructure of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet, the entrance to the magazines lies under the shaft.
• Figure 61 Plan of the substructure and magazines of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet.
• Figure 63 The alabaster sarcophagus found in the burial chamber of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet.
• Figure 64 Lauer’s cross section of the ‘South Tomb’ of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet.
• Figure 65 Plan and elevation of the Layer Pyramid according to Reisner and Fisher.
• Figure 66 Section of the Layer Pyramid according to Barsanti.
• Figure 67 The layout of the Layer Pyramid as proposed by Dodson.
• Figure 68 The remains of the Brick Pyramid viewed from the north-west at Abu Roash, as seen by Lepsius in 1842.
• (Lepsius 1897, Abb. 12)
• Figure 69 The limestone knoll at Abu Roash upon which the Brick Pyramid was built, photographed in the 1980s. The pyramids of Giza can be seen on the horizon.
• Figure 70 Left: The interior of the rock-cut descending polar corridor looking towards the burial chamber and Right: the interior of the offset burial chamber of the Brick Pyramid looking up the corridor.
• Figure 71 Plan and section of the descending corridor and burial chamber of the Brick Pyramid.
• Figure 72 Reconstructed section of the Brick Pyramid from the west showing the rocky knoll, core and conjectural brick superst ucture of the pyramid.
• Figure 73 Section view of the Pyramid of Meidum looking west.
• Figure 74 The raised stone lined and corbelled burial chamber of the Pyramid of Meidum. The wooden door blocking can be seen in the first part of the descending passage.
• Figure 75 The Bent Pyramid in sections looking south and west. Showing both upper (western) and lower (northern) substructure systems.
• Figure 76 Lower section of substructure of the Bent Pyramid looking west. The putative staircase of small blocks leading to the connecting corridor is visible in chambers ‘A’ and ‘B’.
• Figure 77 Upper section of the substructure of the Bent Pyramid looking north.
• Figure 78 Section of the Red or Northern Pyramid of Sneferu looking west.
• Figure 79 Enlarged section of the substructure of the Red Pyramid looking west, showing the burial chamber and antechambers.
• Figure 80 The first corbelled limestone antechamber (‘A’) in the Red Pyramid showing the corridor leading to the virtually identical chamber (‘B’)
• Figure 81 Grave No. 6 at Tell el-Farkha with its 0.5 m thick mud-brick liner. It was closed with a 0.5 cm thick brick cover that matched its perimeter exactly.
• Figure 82 Grave no 63 at Tell el-Farkha with its 0.75–1 m thick walls, which were the same thickness in the substructure and the superstructure.
• Figure 83 Grave 100 at Tell el-Farkha, with its massive mud-brick walls and intrusive and subsidiary burials.
• Figure 84 The massive mud-brick walls of Tomb 1 at Tell Ibrahim Awad with internal magazines built within them.
• Figure 85 The substructure of the First Dynasty Type IC Mastaba No. 1 at Nazlet Batran.
• Figure 86 The Type IC Mastaba XVII at Abu Ghurab. The bucranium is encircled by a dotted line.
• Figure 87 Plan and elevation of the Type IC tomb S 3357 at Saqqara.
• Figure 88 Robbers’ hole in the burial chamber of the First Dynasty Type IC tomb S 3357 at Saqqara.
• Figure 89 Plan and section of the Type IC tomb S3471 at Saqqara
• Figure 90 Plan of tomb S 2185 at Saqqara.
• Figure 91 The stone lined walls and roof of the subterranean compartments of tomb S 2185 at Saqqara.
• Figure 92 Emery’s reconstruction drawing of the Type IC tomb S 3504 at Saqqara.
• Figure 93 Tomb S 3504, showing detail of its burial chamber’s double roof construction and its filling of rubble.
• Figure 94 Tomb S 3503 at Saqqara, with its simple rock cut pit substructure at the centre.
• Figure 95 Tomb 68.H.4 at Helwan
• Figure 97 The burial chamber of Mastaba 1060 at Tarkhan with remains of stone slabs from its roof.
• Figure 98 The double roofed Type IIC tomb II at Awlad el-Sheikh, with its two layers of mud-brick liners.
• (Ranke 1926, Abb. 3-4) Courtesy of Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
• Figure 99 Section through the brick lined pit tomb N 1532 from Cemetery 1500 at Naga el-Deir with its thick mud-brick roof.
• Figure 100 Section through the brick lined tomb N 1506 in Cemetery 1500 at Naga el-Deir with remains of its double roof.
• Figure 101 The Type IC tomb 1207 at Armant. Its projecting ‘tongue’ walls can be clearly seen.
• Figure 102 The Type IC tomb 1208 at Armant.
• Figure 103 The Type IC Grave 2897 at Minshat Abu Omar.
• Figure 104 The Type IC Grave 50 at Tell el-Farkha with one and a half brick thick liner.
• Figure 105 The double roofed Type IC tomb MO25 from Cemetery M at Abu Roash.
• Figure 106 The Type IC tomb S 3507 at Saqqara, with its deeper rock-cut pit and two levels.
• Figure 107 Emery’s drawing of tomb S 3507 at Saqqara, showing its internal arrangements with the hidden mound securing the ope ing now clearly visible.
• Figure 108 Tomb S 3111, possibly the last monumental Type IC pit tomb at Saqqara.
• Figure 109 Stone roofing slabs in situ at tomb 423.H.9 at Helwan, with possibly a robbers’ tunnel on the right?
• Figure 111 The stone lining in Helwan tomb 1390.H.2.
• Figure 110 Enlarged plan of Helwan tomb 1390.H.2 from Saad’s 1:400 scale map.
• Figure 112 The palace façade superstructure and pit of the Type IB tomb 2050 at Tarkhan.
• Figure 113 The palace façade superstructure and pit substructure of Mastaba 2038 at Tarkhan
• Figure 114 Plan and section of the stone-lined tomb III at Awlad el-Sheikh.
• Figure 115 The stone lined and roofed tomb 2 at El-Qara.
• Figure 116 The Type ID mud-brick lined tomb 1056 at Tura el-Asmant with its two portcullises.
• Figure 117 The Type ID stone lined tomb 130 at Tura el-Asmant.
• Figure 118 The Type ID stone lined tomb 249 at Tura el-Asmant.
• Figure 119 The Type ID Mastabas IV and V and at Abu Ghurab.
• Figure 120 The Type ID Mastaba V at Abu Ghurab.
• Figure 121 The Type ID tomb S 3506 at Saqqara, plan view.
• Figure 122 The Type ID tomb S 3506 at Saqqara, axonometric view.
• Figure 123 Plan of tomb S 3035 (Hemaka) at Saqqara – the notches for the roof beams are visible in the off-centre burial pit.
• Figure 124 Sections through the tomb of Hemaka S 3035 showing the descending staircase, subterranean magazines and deep shaft ising through the superstructure.
• Figure 125 Tomb S 3036 (Ankhka) at Saqqara showing the off centre burial chamber.
• Figure 126 Sections through tomb S 3036 (Ankhka) at Saqqara showing the shaft within the superstructure and the stairway.
• Figure 127 The construction phases of the Type ID tomb S 3038 (Nebitka) at Saqqara.
• Figure 128 The final plan of tomb S 3038 (Nebitka) in phase ‘C’.
• Figure 129 Section drawings of the final layout of tomb S 3038 (Nebitka) in phase ‘C’.
• Figure 130 Tomb X at Saqqara showing the deep rock-cut pit and solid mud-brick mastaba.
• Figure 131 The Type ID tomb S 3338 at Saqqara, notably for the first time its descending access slope was entirely concealed u der the superstructure.
• Figure 132 Plans and elevations of the Type ID tomb S 3500 at Saqqara.
• Figure 133 The plan of tomb S 3505 (Merka) at Saqqara.
• Figure 134 The subterranean chambers of S 3505 (Merka)
• Figure 135 Section through tomb S 3505 (Merka) showing the staircase, portcullis and burial chamber roofed by strong beams and planks up to 30 cm thick.
• Figure 136 The unlined gravel cut pit and mud-brick superstructure of the Type ID Helwan tomb 1.H.4.
• Figure 137 The unlined pit of the Type ID Helwan tomb 150.H.5 and its superstructure.
• Figure 138 The Type ID Helwan tomb 1502.H.2
• Figure 139 Tomb 1371.H.2 at Helwan, with its stone slab floor.
• Figure 141 The deep substructure of the Type ID tomb 407.H.4 at Helwan.
• Figure 140 The Type ID tomb 426.H.4 at Helwan, with its second internal brick liner that supported a deep recessed roof and backfill.
• Figure 142 Tomb 355.H.4 at Helwan which had a double roof, the lower one supported on internal ledges.
• Figure 143 The Type ID tomb 1473.H.2 at Helwan showing the raised magazine level on the south and the tomb’s palace façade superstructure.
• Figure 144 Helwan tomb 785.H.5 with its second storey of magazines.
• Figure 145 Tomb 649.H.5 at Helwan with its high level staircase leading to the top of the burial chamber and magazines.
• Figure 146 The Type ID stone lined tomb 385.H.4 at Helwan with its 0.4 m thick stone slab liner.
• Figure 147 The stone lined burial chamber of tomb 385.H.4 with its enormous limestone orthostats. The robbers’ passage can be seen on the left side of the pit.
• Figure 148 The stone lined tomb 40.H.3 (Köhler’s Op. 1/1)
• Figure 149 Plan and section of the stone lined Type ID Helwan tomb 1.H.3.
• Figure 150 The stone clad substructure of Helwan 1.H.3, the multiple portcullises can be seen in position on the staircase.
• Figure 151 The stone slab rood of Helwan tomb 60.H.1 after excavation.
• Figure 152 The enormous stone lined Helwan tomb 654.H.4.The post holes that may have been part of a shrine are clearly visible.
• Figure 153 Plan of the Type ID tomb N 1581 from Naga el-Deir, with the remains of its superstructure.
• Figure 154 Section of tomb N 1581 from Naga el-Deir showing the deep limestone pit, into which the burial chamber was dug, and the overlying thick mud and wood roof.
• Figure 155 The shallow Type ID mud-brick lined stairway tomb M1 from Mahasna.
• Figure 156 The mud-brick lined tomb b 91 at El-Amrah.
• Figure 157 Plan and section of the Type IC mud-brick corbel roofed tomb N 1586 from Naga el-Deir.
• Figure 158 Plan and section of the Type II tomb MO1 at Abu Roash.
• Figure 159 Plan and Section of the Type II tomb MO2 at Abu Roash.
• Figure 160 The early Type IIA tomb S 3121 at Saqqara.
• Figure 161 The early Type IIA tomb S 3120 at Saqqara.
• Figure 163 Abusir Type IIA tomb 13 C-3/13 B-1 with its reinforced stone lined roof and robber’s tunnel.
• Figure 162 The Type IIA tomb 10B-4 at Abusir with portcullis stone in place.
• Figure 164 The Type IIA tomb S 3042 at Saqqara with its three subterranean chambers and two magazines.
• Figure 165 The Type IIA tomb S 3477 at Saqqara.
• Figure 166 S 3024 an ‘early ‘Type IIA stairway tomb at Saqqara with its mud-brick partitioned burial chamber set 12.5 m down f om the surface.
• Figure 168 Composite image of the substructure and superstructure of tomb S 2302.
• Figure 167 A large unidentified Type IIA ‘house type’ substructure at Saqqara.
• Figure 169 Type IIA Helwan tomb 255.H.8 with its robber’s tunnel.
• Figure 170 Plan and section of the deep Type IIA Helwan tomb 25.H.5.
• Figure 171 The multichambered Type IIA Helwan tomb 505.H.4. The robber’s tunnel can be seen on the right.
• Figure 172 Plan view of Helwan tomb 25.H.4 (Köhler’s Op. 2/1).
• Figure 173 The Type IIA tomb Op. 4/123 at Helwan. The robber’s tunnel is at the north end and starts outside the edge of the superstructure.
• Figure 174 The Type IIA Grave 240 at Kafr Amar.
• Figure 175 Plan and section of tomb 771 at the Bashkatib Cemetery with its portcullis and 0.75 m thick limestone roof.
• Figure 176 Plan and section of tomb 821 at the Bashkatib Cemetery, Lahun with its thin 0.15 m thick limestone roof.
• Figure 177 The type IIA tomb 560 at Sedment.
• Figure 178 The Type IIA burial chambers of tombs 562, 429 and 507 at Qau.
• Figure 179 The Type IIA tomb 3112 at Spur 5 in Cemetery 3100 at Badari.
• Figure 180 The Type IIA tomb 205 at Armant.
• Figure 181 The intact tomb 64 from Cemetery 24 at El-Kab.
• Figure 182 The Type IIA + IIA-C tomb S 3050 from Saqqara, showing the Type IIA burial chamber and descent in section. (NB. The section drawing is reversed by the draughtsman)
• Figure 183 Two of the three Third Dynasty Type IIA tombs at Badari – tombs 3227 and 3228
• Figure 184 The Type IIA + IIA ‘twin’ mastaba N573 and N 587 in Cemetery 500–900 at Naga el-Deir
• Figure 185 The multichambered Type IIA tomb R1 at Reqaqnah.
• Figure 186 The multichambered Type IIA tomb R 40 at Reqaqnah.
• Figure 187 The enormous Type IIA tomb K1 at Beit Khallaf with its ‘U’ shaped stairway, six portcullises and stone lined burial chamber.
• Figure 188 The Type IIA + IIA ‘twin mastaba’ tomb K2 at Beit Khallaf.
• Figure 189 Stairway tomb 353 at Ballas.
• Figure 190 The Type IIB ‘deep’ staircase tomb Op. 4/62 at Helwan.
• Figure 191 The substructure of the Type IIB ‘deep’ staircase tomb N561b from Cemetery 500-900 at Naga el-Deir.
• Figure 192 Plan and section of the Type IIA-C stair-shaft Covington’s Tomb (also known as Tomb no. 1 or Mastaba T) at Giza wi h its solid mud-brick superstructure and enclosure wall.
• Figure 193 The Type IIA-C stair-shaft tomb of Hesyra at Saqqara with its differing substructure levels and solid mud-brick superstructure.
• Figure 194 The Type IIA-C + IIC ‘twin mastaba’ tomb S 3070 at Saqqara, showing southern shaft with burial chambers on two levels on the left and northern stair-shaft on the right with its single chamber.
• Figure 195 The Type IIA-C tomb N 593 from Naga el-Deir.
• Figure 196 Plan and section of the Type IIA-C stair-shaft tomb AS 33 from Abusir showing its multichambered substructure.
• Figure 197 Section looking west of the twin stair-shafts and burial chambers of AS 20, the tomb of Hetepi, at Abusir.
• Figure 198 Tomb 256.H.8, a typical Second Dynasty Type IIC shaft tomb from Helwan; the robbers’ tunnel into the burial chamber is clearly visible. (Drawn by the author after Saad 1957, pln. G)
• Figure 199 The Second Dynasty Type IIC shaft tombs 720 and 768 from the Bashkatib cemetery at Lahun
• Figure 200 The rock-cut burial chamber of the Third Dynasty Type IIC tomb AS 54 from Abusir.
• Figure 201 The Third Dynasty Type IIC + IIC tomb S 3518 at Saqqara. The southern shaft is now part of the baboon galleries.
• Figure 202 The Third Dynasty Type IIC + IIC tomb S 3517 at Saqqara.
• Figure 203 Tomb 287.H.6 at Helwan, with its stone lined shaft and burial chamber.
• Figure 204 The Third Dynasty Type IIC tombs 769 and 735 at Bashkatib Cemetery in Lahun.
• Figure 205 Plan and section of the early Fourth Dynasty Type IIC ‘Lake of Abusir tomb 1’.
• Figure 206 The Type IIC + IIA-C tomb of Ity at Abusir showing section of Type IIC southern shaft and burial chamber. The northern substructure is unfinished. The external walls of the superstructures are mud-brick, with an internal wall of limestone 0.8–1
• Figure 207 The corbelled burial chamber and brick and stone lined ‘T’ shaped shaft of tomb no. 1 at Dahshur North, which was located amongst De Morgan’s ‘Mastabas du sud’.
• Figure 208 The Type IIC tomb DAS 9 (Ipy) at Dahshur South. The differing strata in the underlying geology can be clearly seen in the substructure section.
• Figure 209 The deep stone lined and saddle roofed burial chamber and shaft of DAS 32-4 (Iinefer) at Dahshur South.
• Figure 211 Plan and section of Mastaba II/1, which is attributed to Prince Netjer-Aperef.
• Figure 210 Plan and section of Mastaba I/1 in the ‘Lepsius Field’ at Dahshur.
• Figure 212 Enlarged view of the stone lined burial chamber and shaft of Mastaba II/1 showing the robber’s tunnel penetrating the shaft and burial chamber roof.
• Figure 213 The stone lined burial chamber of Mastaba II/1 at Dahshur showing the breached portcullis.
• Figure 214 Plan and section of Mastaba I/2 at Dahshur. The robber’s tunnel can be seen in the stone floor.
• Figure 215 Plan of the Type III + IIC ‘twin’ Mastaba No. 16 belonging to Nefermaat and Atet at Meidum.
• Figure 216 The burial chamber of Atet in Mastaba no. 16 at Meidum, together with its portcullis (Not to scale).
• Figure 217 Plan of the Type IIC + IIC ‘twin’ Mastaba No. 6 of Rahotep and Nefert at Meidum.
• Figure 218 Sections of the Type IIC shafts and burial chambers of Rahotep (on the left) and Nefert (right) in Mastaba No. 6 at Meidum (drawings of different scales)
• Figure 219 The burial chambers of Ranefer (left and centre) and the shaft and burial chamber of his spouse (right) from the Type IIC + IIC ‘twin’ Mastaba no. 9 at Meidum (drawings of different scales).
• Figure 220 Plan and section of the burial chamber and shaft from Mastaba No. 4, (Heneken) at Meidum.
• Figure 221 Plan and section of the Type IIC + IIC Mastaba No. 7 at Meidum.
• Figure 222 The burial chamber and shaft of the Type IIC Mastaba 416 at Meidum.
• Figure 223 The southern masonry lined burial chamber and rock-cut shaft of the Type IIC + IIC + IIC Mastaba No. 8 at Meidum.
• Figure 224 The masonry lined and corbelled burial chamber of Mastaba No. 1 at Meidum, which was accessed by a brick lined shaf , with a stone built base and portcullis emplacement.
• Figure 225 The Type IIC tomb 63 in the Far Western Cemetery of Meidum. Showing a typical stone lined burial chamber and shaft arrangement with portcullis.
• Figure 226 Unlined Type IIC gable roofed rock-cut burial chamber and shaft of tomb no. 55 in the Far Western Cemetery at Meidum.
• Figure 227 Plan and section of The Type IIC tomb N739 at Cemetery 500-900 in Naga el-Deir showing the shaft’s brick lining.
• Figure 228 The Type IIC Mastaba of Kamena at El-Kab, with its sandstone lined burial chamber (drawings of different scales). (Quibell 1896, pls. I.4 and XXIII)
• Figure 229 The stone built burial chamber of the Type III tomb A at Meidum. The descending passage has a stone step ‘H’, which would form a stop for the plug-stones used to seal it.
• Figure 230 The Type III North Peribolous tomb at Meidum, showing a rock-cut burial chamber that had been dug in the end face o the trench, which contained the stone lined and inclined entrance corridor.
• Figure 231 Sections and plan of the Type III stone built corbelled burial chamber of Nefermaat in Mastaba no. 16 at Meidum, sitting in its pit and encased with a protective liquid mud and stone block surround. The blocking to the chamber’s entrance can b
• Figure 232 The Type III substructure of Mastaba 17 sitting at the bottom of its pit at Meidum with its enormous stone ashlar roof and plug-stone blocked corridor. The robbers’ tunnel can be seen at the end of the corridor.
• Figure 233 The robbers’ tunnel into Mastaba 17; the block had been weakened by fire before being smashed. (Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910, pl. X.5)
• Figure 234 Internal view of the mud-brick lined stairwell of the tomb of Den, with its restored wooden roof.
• Figure 235 The mud-brick lined stairway descending into the tomb of Den. The subsidiary graves originally ran over and covered the staircase.
• Figure 236 The stairway and mud-brick blocking of the tomb of Adjib exposed by Petrie.
• Figure 237 The recently re-excavated mud-brick lined ramp leading to the burial chamber of Semerkhet.
• Figure 238 The mud-brick staircase of the tomb of Qa’a.
• The remains of the limestone portcullis can be seen at the base of the stairs.
• Figure 239 The stone roofing beams over the trench cut stairway ‘C’ of the Type IIA tomb of Hotepsekhemwy/Raneb at Saqqara. The entrance to magazine C200 can be seen on the left.
• Figure 240 The present entrance to the tomb of Ninetjer, which is via the second portcullis shaft on the south-east corner of he mastaba of Nebkahor Idu.
• Figure 241 The rough ramp leading down to the northern entrance of the tomb of Khasekhemwy, as viewed from the west. (Dreyer et al. 1998, Taf. 13b) Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Figure 242 The two corridors branching from the stairwell in the core of the Layer Pyramid. The upper passage continues until it reaches a cul-de-sac; the lower is a parallel passage leading to the burial chamber.
• Figure 243 The descending corridor and substructure of the Pyramid of Meidum. The large slabs over the entrance can be clearly seen.
• Figure 244 The inaccessible western entrance to the Bent Pyramid (marked by the arrow) 33.32 m up from its base.
• Figure 245 The Type ID tomb S 2105 at Saqqara, showing the stairway entrance concealed under the thick mud-brick walls of the superstructure.
• Figure 246 The orientation of stairways in Type ID tombs at Helwan.
• Figure 247 The stairways of the Helwan Type ID tombs 1.H.3 (left) and 701.H.3 (right) possibly placed to avoid other tombs i the necropolis.
• Figure 248 Limestone beams protecting the stairwell of the Type IIA tomb S 3121 at Saqqara.
• Figure 249 The Type IIA tomb 68.H.5 from Helwan with its external placed stairway.
• Figure 251 The stairway of the Type IIA tomb Op. 4/4 at Helwan descending within the perimeter of its superstructure. (Drawn by the author after Köhler 2003b, fig. 2)
• Figure 250 Longitudinal section of the entrance of the Type IIA 25.H.4 (Köhler’s Op. 2/1) at Helwan, showing the stairway cut into the slope of the wadi.
• Figure 252 Unpublished tombs with superstructures at Helwan. Type IIA stairway tombs 463.H.4, 464.H.4, 612.H.4, 636.H.4, 74.H.5, 8.H.5, 60.H.5, 71.H.5, 501.H.4 and 28.H.5. Type IIB ‘deep staircase’ tomb 70.H.5 and Type IIC shaft tombs 11.H.5, 666.H.4 and
• Figure 253 The Type IIA tombs N 574 and N 599 at Cemetery 500-900 at Naga el-Deir, showing their stairways protected by their superstructures.
• Figure 254 The unusual subterranean stairway of tomb N 689 from Cemetery 500-900 at Naga el-Deir.
• Figure 255 The Type IIB ‘deep’ staircase tomb Op. 4/103 at Helwan.
• Figure 256 The Type IIB ‘deep’ staircase tomb Op. 4/148 at Helwan, showing the outline of its superstructure.
• Figure 257 Section of the Type IIA + IIA-C tomb S 3050 at Saqqara, showing the stair-shaft.
• Figure 258 The meandering stairways of the stair-shafts of the Type IIA-C + IIA-C tomb of Hetepi (AS20) at Abusir enclosed i its mud-brick superstructure, with its inner protective limestone wall and core of limestone chips and sand.
• Figure 259 Enlarged view of the northern meandering stairway in the tomb of Hetepi (AS20) at Abusir.
• Figure 260 The stone superstructure and shaft mouth of the Third Dynasty Type IIC ‘Inner Mastaba’ at Nazlet Batran (After Kromer 1991, Pln. 2) Courtesy of the Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
• Figure 261 Photograph of the damaged superstructure and stone lined shaft mouth of the ‘Inner Mastaba’ at Nazlet Batran. (Kromer 1991, Taf. 4, fig. 1) Courtesy of the Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
• Figure 262 The stone lined shaft of the Third Dynasty Type IIC tomb 287.H.6 at Helwan. The 4.5 m long × 1.1 m high × 0.3 m thick orthostats on the burial chamber side of the shaft can be clearly seen at the top of the photograph. (Saad 1969, pl. 18) Copyr
• Figure 263 The deep rubble filled shafts III and VI under the Step Pyramid. On the left, the rubble of large stones and clay filled the shaft leading to shaft III containing the burial of a ‘royal’ family member. On the right, the ‘clayey soil’ filled sha
• Figure 264 The rubble filled stairwell of the South Tomb of the Step Pyramid.
• Figure 265 The 5 m thick rubble filled descending corridor of the pyramid of Sekhemkhet.
• Figure 266 Large rocks blocking the entrance stairway of the Type ID pit tomb N1581 at Cemetery 1500 in Naga el-Deir. Further down, a mud-brick blocking can be seen at the base of the stairs.
• Figure 267 Covington’s sketch section of the Type IIA-C Covington’s Tomb or Mastaba V. The artist’s impression of the heavyweight rubble blocking can be seen at the top of the stair-shaft.
• Figure 268 The heavy rubble blocking still barring access to the passage leading to the burial chamber of the Third Dynasty Type IIC ‘Inner Mastaba’ at Nazlet Batran.
• Figure 269 The loose mud-brick walling and wood ‘portcullis’ blocking the entrance to the tomb of King Adjib at Umm el-Qaab.
• Figure 270 The entrance doorway into the burial chamber of King Qa‘a blocked with mud-brick.
• Figure 271 The in-depth mud-brick blocking of the stairway of the Type ID tomb S 3500 at Saqqara.
• Figure 272 The mud-brick ‘secondary’ door blocking behind the portcullis of the intact Type IIA tomb S 3477 at Saqqara. (Emery 1962, pl. 5b) Courtesy of the Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten.
• Figure 273 The Type IIA tomb 806 at the Bashkatib Cemetery in Lahun, showing the entrance and loculi blocked with mud-brick.
• Figure 274 The mud-brick blocking in front of the vaulted burial chamber of the Lake of Abusir tomb 1.
• Figure 275 The remains of the masonry blocking the stairwell at its juncture with the shaft in the Step Pyramid, looking north. (Lauer 1936, pl. XVIII.1) © IFAO.
• Figure 276 The masonry entrance blocking of the descending corridor of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet looking north.
• Figure 277 The masonry blocking of the burial chamber entrance of the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet.
• Figure 278 The ‘end on’ flagstones used to block the passage of the Type IIA tomb S 2171 at Saqqara.
• Figure 279 The ‘end on’ flagstones in the passageway of S 2498 in situ with broken slabs from its roof lying above it.
• Figure 280 The masonry blocking of the entrance to the burial chamber of S 2405, the tomb of Hesyra.
• Figure 281 The masonry blocked entrance to the burial chamber of Nefermaat in Mastaba No. 16 at Meidum.
• Figure 282 The wooden door blocking the entrance to the passage of Nefermaat, behind which the stone blocking continued up into the passage. (Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1912, pl. XVI.I) Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.
• Figure 283 The broken remains of the limestone portcullis in the tomb of Qa‘a
• Figure 284 The various routes taken by tomb robbers as they tunnelled through the substructure of the tomb of Qa‘a having bypassed the portcullis.
• Figure 285 The granite plug in position in the roof of the granite vault of the Step Pyramid of Saqqara.
• Figure 286 The enormous 3 tonne granite plug used to seal the granite vault in the Step Pyramid – the notches for the lowering ropes can be seen at its head.
• Figure 287 The granite vault in the South Tomb and its multi segmented granite plug assembly.
• Figure 289 The unusual sloping emplacement of the portcullises in the Bent Pyramid.
• Figure 290 The closed portcullis in the western corridor of the Bent Pyramid looking west, with the robbers’ hole in its upper half.
• Figure 288 Section and plan of the portcullis emplacements and passages at the end of the western descending corridor in the Bent Pyramid. The 4 m deep pit in the
• Figure 291 The exposed bottom corner of the portcullis in the Bent Pyramid, after the passage floor had been removed. The horizontal black line across its base shows where the original floor covered the face of the slab and would have made it difficult to
• Figure 292 A typical twin portcullis arrangement found in tomb MO11 from Cemetery M at Abu Roash. The top half of the portcullis has been cut down by tomb robbers. The rebates in the slabs suggest they have been cut down so that they can fit the grooved e
• Figure 293 How the two portcullis stones in tomb MO2 may have originally been tied together.
• Figure 294 Plan and section of tomb MO10 at Abu Roash.
• Figure 295 Explanatory sketches of the locking mechanism for the portcullis in tomb MO10 at Abu Roash. The locking slot ‘a’ is seen in the photograph below.
• Figure 296 The floor above the shaft in tomb MO10 at Abu Roash. The slot that forms part of the floor locking mechanism for the portcullis is easily discernible as a slot in the centre of the picture.
• Figure 297 The damaged second portcullis at the base of the rock-cut stairway in tomb S 3035 (Hemaka) at Saqqara. The grooves for ropes run right under the base, suggesting that its rope holes may have been at the top, as in the photograph on the right.
• Figure 298 The door to the putative burial chamber of Hemaka blocked by a 2 tonne portcullis. The holes and grooves for loweri g ropes can be clearly seen.
• Figure 299 The portcullis in tomb X at Saqqara in its emplacement. The drilled holes for lowering ropes are at its base.
• Figure 300 The twin portcullises in situ at the base of the stairway in tomb S 3500. In this case the holes for its lowering ropes are at the top of the lower stone.
• Figure 301 The portcullis of the Type ID tomb S 2105 in situ.
• Figure 302 The portcullis of the Type ID tomb 665.H.3 at Helwan with a single hole drilled in its base for its lowering rope.
• Figure 303 Views south and north of the two portcullises in the stone lined Type ID tomb 40.H.3 (Op. 1/1) at Helwan, which we e set before the magazines and burial chamber.
• Figure 304 The penultimate portcullis from the stone lined Type ID tomb 1.H.3 at Helwan, the four holes for the lowering ropes can be seen in its base. (Saad 1947, pl. LXVIII)
• Figure 305 The ‘dumbbell’ shaped portcullis emplacement of Petrie’s ‘Unknown Tomb’ at Giza’ and its portcullis.
• Figure 306 The portcullis blocking the entrance to the substructure of the Type IIA tomb S 3477 at Saqqara. The tomb was found intact and the damage to the stone is attributable to Emery’s workmen who cut through it on his instructions. (Emery 1962, pl. 5
• Figure 307 The substructures of assorted Type IIA and IIA-C ‘house type’ substructures at Saqqara with their portcullis emplacements marked with a letter ‘P’.
• Figure 308 The unusual notches in the portcullis from the Type IIA tomb 809.H.3 at Helwan, which were designed to permit lowering ropes to be wrapped around the stone.
• Figure 309 The crude portcullis blocking the entrance to the Type IIA tomb 505.H.4 at Helwan. The 0.5 m measuring stick sugges s it is over 2 m high by at least 1.5 m wide.
• Figure 310 The portcullis in the Type IIA tomb Op. 4/4 at Helwan; the robber’s have broken the top left corner and penetrated hrough the secondary mud-brick blocking behind.
• Figure 311 Petrie’s field notebook sketch of the pentagonal slab that protected the entrance of the Type IIA tomb 568 at Sedme t.
• Figure 312 The barrel vaulted cross-walls that formed the ‘shafts’ for the portcullises of tomb R1 at Reqaqnah. The crudely cu 3.2 tonne slab can be seen at the base of the stairs and on the right hand photograph.
• Figure 313 The huge 14.7–22.5 tonne portcullis stone from Mastaba K2 at Beit Khallaf.
• Figure 314 The damaged portcullis in Mastaba II/1 at Dahshur. The grooves for the lowering ropes can be clearly seen in its base.
• Figure 315 A selection of Type IIC shaft tombs in plan and section from the Far Western Cemetery at Meidum. Their portcullises have been supported in the open position by piles of small stones.
• Figure 316 Tipping a portcullis with a lever to enable the underlying supporting blocks to be removed.
• Figure 317 The ‘bearing block’ found by Hassan at Giza, over which ropes could be run, and which acted as a primitive pulley.
• Figure 318 The entrance to the descending corridor of the Pyramid of Meidum, showing the tapered blockwork designed to accommodate the plug-stones in the entrance.
• Figure 319 The descending corridor in the Pyramid of Meidum. The ‘D’ shaped sockets for metal bars that may have supported the first closure are indicated by the arrows.
• Figure 320 Section and plan of the descending corridor and falling plug-stone arrangement in the satellite pyramid associated with the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur.
• Figure 321 One of the undescended plug-stones still in the corridor in the satellite pyramid of the Bent Pyramid.
• Figure 322 The descending corridor of the ‘South Tomb’ in the Peribolous at Meidum, which may have been a satellite pyramid, as envisioned by Maragioglio and Rinaldi. Its descending corridor was closed with two layers of plug-stones, the lowest of which w
• Figure 323 The plug-stones of Mastaba No. 17 at Meidum still in situ projecting beyond the end of the tomb’s descending corridor.
• Figure 324 Engel’s reconstruction of the superstructure of the tomb of King Qa‘a, which probably overlaid his substructure directly. Further out it was surrounded by subsidiary graves, each perhaps with their own individual superstructures.
• Figure 325 The tomb of Semerkhet at Umm el-Qaab covered by its excavators with a modern protective ‘tumulus’ of sand consolida ed by limestone chips.
• Figure 326 Reconstruction of the putative superstructure of Kings Hotepsekhemwy/Raneb at Saqqara looking south. (Lacher 2008, Abb. 4) Courtesy of C. Lacher-Raschdorff)
• Figure 327 Dreyer’s reconstruction of the tumulus/superstructure over the tomb of Khasekhemwy at Umm el-Qaab. As can be seen, he superstructure would have left much of the substructure unprotected.
• Figure 328 Lauer’s diagram of the construction phases of the Step Pyramid of Djoser. (Lauer 1962, fig. 20) © IFAO.
• Figure 329 Section of the first stage (M1) of the mastaba of King Djoser at Saqqara looking west. The original descent and co struction pit are shown open, as they might have been during construction.
• Figure 330 Section of the first phase of the pyramid (P1) of Djoser at Saqqara, looking west.
• Figure 331 Section of the Step Pyramid in its completed state looking south. Showing approximate dimensions from the edge of he shaft to the closest point on the superstructure; perimeter of the pyramid to the top of the shaft; and burial chamber to the
• Figure 332 Section looking west of the superstructure over Djoser’s ‘South Tomb’ in the Step Pyramid complex at Saqqara.
• Figure 333 The exposed north-west corner of the unfinished pyramid of Sekhemkhet.
• Figure 334 Section through the Pyramid of Sekhemkhet looking west, with approximate distances from perimeter of pyramid to burial chamber.
• Figure 335 The sloping accretion layers in the unfinished Layer Pyramid at Zawiyet el-Aryan
• Figure 336 Sectional reconstruction of the Layer Pyramid looking west. Approximate dimensions to the burial chamber from the perimeter of the pyramid are shown.
• Figure 337 The 17 m high remains of the Brick Pyramid at Abu Roash as viewed from the south-east by Lepsius in 1842.
• Figure 338 Schematic section of the Brick Pyramid at Abu Roash looking west. The knoll, surmounted by a brick nucleus and medulla, formed the core for either a step pyramid, or less likely, a ‘true’ pyramid.
• Figure 339 Section through the Pyramid of Meidum looking south, showing the three phases of the pyramid’s construction.
• Figure 340 Section drawing of the Pyramid of Meidum looking west showing the three phases of construction and the minimum depth of protection offered by the pyramid to the burial chamber.
• Figure 341 Section drawing of the outer cladding layer applied to the lower half of the Bent Pyramid, together with its dimensions.
• Figure 342 Section drawings of the Bent Pyramid looking south and west, showing minimum depths of protection offered by the py amid to its ‘substructure’.
• Figure 343 Section drawings of the Red Pyramid looking west showing minimum depths of protection offered by the pyramid to its ‘substructure’.
• Figure 344 The ‘shaft’ leading down through the massive superstructure of the Type IB grave 94 at Tell el-Farkha, which was backfilled after the burial was made.
• Figure 345 The remains of the palace façade walls of the superstructure of Mastaba V at Nazlet Batran.
• Figure 346 The plan of the large palace façade superstructure of the Type IC Mastaba V at Nazlet Batran.
• Figure 347 The excavation of the Type IC tomb S 3357 at Saqqara, which gives a sense of the scale of these structures.
• Figure 348 Emery’s axonometric reconstruction of the superstructure and stocked magazines of the Type IC tomb S 3503 at Saqqara.
• Figure 349 The outline of the palace façade superstructure of the Type IC tomb N 1506 from Cemetery 1500 at Naga el-Deir.
• Figure 350 The Naqada ‘Royal Tomb’ with its palace façade walls enclosing the inner core is (in black). The door blockings are shown in lighter tones.
• Figure 351 De Morgan’s perspective view of the Naqada ‘Royal Tomb’.
• Figure 352 The remains of the massive superstructure and enclosure wall over the Type IC grave 55 at Tell el-Farkha. Its footp int overhang from the substructure’s edge is approximately 2 m.
• Figure 353 The mud-brick palace façade of the superstructure of the Type IC tomb 423.H.9 at Helwan.
• Figure 354 The interior of the Type IC tomb 423.H.9 at Helwan, which would have been filled with sand, gravel or rubble. The recess for the pit’s roof can be clearly seen.
• Figure 355 The remains of the superstructure and substructure of the Type ID Mastaba IV at Abu Ghurab.
• Figure 356 The remains of the superstructure of the Type ID Mastaba V at Abu Ghurab showing the offering chapel on its eastern face and the reduced 1 m footprint overhang created by the opening up of the chapel. In the far left corner, what may have possi
• Figure 357 The exposed stepped inner superstructure (phase ‘A’) of the Type IC tomb S 3038 (Nebitka) at Saqqara, seen behind the outer palace
• façade walls of the final phase ‘C’ during Emery’s excavations.
• Figure 358 The fragmentary palace façade superstructure of the Type ID Tomb N 1514 at Cemetery 1500 at Naga el-Deir.
• Figure 359 The subterranean burial chamber of tomb MO7 at Cemetery M at Abu Roash; orientated so that it was completely protec ed by its overlying superstructure.
• Figure 360 The Type IIC tomb S 2307 at Saqqara, the substructure can be seen to be well protected by the superstructure, with a good footprint overhang.
• Figure 361 Food storage jars and utensils set in the unknown core filling of the superstructure of an un-named Second Dynasty omb.
• Figure 362 The Type IIA tomb S 3040 at Saqqara, with its substructure and stairway concealed under the eastern edge of the inner chapel wall facing the corridor of its large mud-brick superstructure.
• Figure 363 The generous protection offered by the superstructure of the Type IIB deep staircase tomb N 561b at Cemetery 500-90 at Naga el-Deir.
• Figure 364 The gravel filled mud-brick superstructures of the Type IIA-C stair-shaft tombs M1 and M3 at Saqqara.
• Figure 365 The massive walls and multi-compartmented superstructure of the Type IIA-C + IIA-C tomb S 2407 at Saqqara, overlying its ‘house type’ substructure.
• Figure 366 The 43 m long solid mud-brick superstructure of the tomb of Hesyra, S 2405 at Saqqara, showing its underlying subst ucture.
• Figure 367 The 9.5 m long solid mud-brick superstructure of the Type IIA-C tomb M2 at Saqqara, whose footprint is just 4.3% of the area of that of Hesyra.
• Figure 368 The mud-brick palace façade superstructure of tomb 274 at the rock necropolis in El-Kab with its two magazines and internal stair-shaft. The eastern magazine contained beer jars.
• Figure 369 The mud-brick palace façade superstructure of tomb 274 atop the 50 m high Rock Necropolis at El-Kab.
• Figure 370 The Helwan Type IIC tomb Op. 4/115, whose shaft was completely protected by its overlying superstructure.
• Figure 371 The remains of the solid mud-brick superstructure of the Type IIC tomb M16 at Saqqara, which probably concealed its underlying shaft totally with its 19 m2 footprint.
• Figure 373 The remains of the superstructure of DAS 32-1 (Iinefer) at Dahshur South, drawn by Barsanti.
• Figure 372 The limestone clad superstructure of DAS 25/1 at Dahshur South.
• Figure 374 The superstructure of the Type IIC + IIC + IIC Mastaba no. 8 at Meidum. The robbers’ tunnel ‘A’ into the burial chamber is marked on the plan.
• Figure 375 The enormous decorated stone monoliths lining the chapel of Nefermaat in the mud-brick superstructure of tomb no. 1 at Meidum with inset, a sketch showing the approximate weights of the slabs.
• Figure 376 Cross section through Mastaba No. 17 at Meidum. Overlying the substructure already built in its rock-cut pit, the s ructure was built in a larger overlying pit cut in the gravel, which went down to the bedrock for security and stability. The co
• Figure 377 The ‘great pit’ in Mastaba 17 at Meidum, which was created by Wainwright to enable his men to work safely within its 100,000 tonne loose gravel core.
• Figure 378 Flow chart/timeline showing the interrelated phases of security features in Egyptian tombs from the Early Dynastic Period to the end of the reign of Sneferu.
• 
• Illustration: Kaiser and Dreyer 1982: Abb. 4. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Kaiser And Dreyer 1982: Abb. 12. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Kaiser and Dreyer 1982: Abb. 12. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Kaiser and Grossman 1979: Abb. 1. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Kaiser 1981: Abb. 1. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• 
• Illustration: Kaiser 1981: Abb. 1. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo. .
• Illustration: Kaiser 1981: Abb. 1. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Dreyer 2003: p. 69. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Petrie 1900: Pl. LXI.
• Illustration: Dreyer 2005: Abb. 20. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo
• Illustration: Dreyer et al. 1996: Abb. 19. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Lacher 2008: Abb. 2.
• Identity: King Hotepsekhemwy/Raneb
• Illustration: Lacher 2011: Fig. 2.
• Illustration: Dreyer et al. 2006: Abb. 13. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Dreyer et al. 2003: Abb. 16. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Photograph by the author.
• Illustration: Lauer 1936: Pl. XXXI. © IFAO.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Goneim 1957, pl. 4 and Lauer 1979, fig. 7
• Illustration: Dodson 2003: Fig. 46.
• Illustration: Dodson 2003: p. 48.
• Illustration: Photograph by the author
• Illustration: Photograph by the Author.
• Illustration: Photograph by Aidan Dodson.
• Illustration: Photograph by the author
• Illustration: Kroeper 1992: Fig. 12.
• Illustration: Kroeper 1992: Fig. 6.
• Illustration: Debowska-Ludwin 2009: Pl. 4.
• Illustration: Debowska-Ludwin 2009: Pl. 4.
• Illustration: Debowska-Ludwin 2009: Pl. 3.
• Illustration: Debowska-Ludwin 2011b: Fig. 3.
• Illustration: Debowska-Ludwin et al. 2010: Fig. 1.
• Illustration: Photograph courtesy of J. Debowska-Ludwin.
• Illustration: Debowska-Ludwin 2009: Pl. 3.
• Illustration: Debowska-Ludwin 2009: Pl. 4.
• Illustration: Debowska-Ludwin 2010: Fig. 3.
• Illustration: Debowska-Ludwin 2009: Pl. 3.
• Illustration: Debowska-Ludwin 2011b: Fig. 1.
• Illustration: Haarlem 1996: Fig. 1.
• Illustration: Photograph courtesy of the Egyptian Cultural Heritage Association. © ECHO
• Illustration: courtesy of the Egyptian Cultural Heritage Association. © ECHO
• Illustration: Klasens 1959a: Fig. 12. Courtesy of the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden.
• Illustration: Klasens 1961: Fig. 2. Courtesy of the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Montet 1938: Pl. II.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Montet 1938: Pl. II.
• 
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Montet 1938: Pl. III.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Montet 1938: Pl. IV.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Montet 1938: Pl. IV.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Montet 1938: Pl. V.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Montet 1938: Pl. VI.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Montet 1938: Pl. VI.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Montet 1938: Pl. VII.
• Illustration: Klasens 1961: Fig. 1.Courtesy of the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Boghdady 1932: 154.
• Illustration: Engles 1990: Fig. 13. Courtesy of the American Research Center in Egypt.
• Illustration: Engles 1990: Fig. 14. Courtesy of the American Research Center in Egypt.
• Illustration: Engles 1990: Fig. 24. Courtesy of the American Research Center in Egypt.
• Illustration: Engles 1990: Fig. 27. Courtesy of the American Research Center in Egypt.
• Illustration: Daressy 1906: Fig. 1.
• Illustration: Petrie 1907: Pl. VIb.
• Illustration: Petrie 1907: Pl. VII
• Illustration: Kromer 1991: Plan 2. Courtesy of the Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Yacoub 1981: Pl. XVII.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Yacoub 1981: Pl. XIV.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Yacoub 1981: Pl. XX.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Yacoub 1981: Pl. XVIII.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after El Khouli 1968: Pl. V.
• Illustration: Radwan 2000: Fig. 2.
• Illustration: Radwan 1991: Abb. 1.
• Illustration: Radwan 1991: Abb. 2.
• Illustration: Bonnet 1928: Taf. 2.
• Illustration: Bonnet 1928: Taf. 2.
• Illustration: Bonnet 1928: Taf. 2.
• Illustration: Bonnet 1928: Taf. 2
• Illustration: Bonnet 1928: Taf. 4.
• Illustration: Bárta 2011a: Fig. 1
• Illustration: After Bárta 2010: Figs. 3.1, 3.18 and 3.21
• Illustration: Bárta 2010: Fig. 2.2.
• Illustration: Bárta 2001: Fig. 1.2.
• Illustration: Bárta 2000: Fig 2.
• Illustration: Emery 1939: Pl. 1.
• Illustration: Emery 1949: Pl. 1.
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. V.
• Illustration: Emery 1954: Pls. II & III. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society.
• Illustration: Emery 1954: Pl. XXXVIII. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society.
• Illustration: Emery 1958: Pl. 85. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society.
• Illustration: Emery 1949: Pl. 36.
• Illustration: Emery 1958: Pl. 40. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society.
• Illustration: Emery 1938: Pl. 1.
• Illustration: Emery 1949: Pl. 14.
• Illustration: Emery 1949: Pl. 25.
• Illustration: Emery 1949: Pl. 43.
• Illustration: Emery 1949: Pl. 55.
• Illustration: Emery 1958: Pl. 114. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society.
• Illustration: Emery 1958: Pl. 2. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society..
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 52.
• Illustration: Emery 1949: Pl. 48.
• Illustration: Emery 1949: Pl. 53.
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. I.
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 67.
• 
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. II.
• Illustration: Emery 1962: Pl. 4 . Courtesy of the Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten.
• Illustration: Emery 1949: Fig. 9.
• Illustration: After Quibell 1923: Pls. I and XXX.
• Illustration: After Quibell 1923: Pls. I and XXX.
• Identity: S 2302
• Illustration: After Quibell 1923: Pls. I and XXX.
• 
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. I.
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. XXX.
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. II.
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. II.
• Illustration: After Quibell 1923: Pls. II and XXX.
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. I.
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. I.
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 77.
• 
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. II.
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. I.
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. II.
• Illustration: Martin 1974: Fig. 7. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society.
• Illustration: Quibell 1913: Pl. II.
• Illustration: Emery 1968: Pl. II
• Illustration: Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. I.
• 
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 72.
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. I
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. I.
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. II.
• Illustration: After Quibell 1923: Pls. II and XXX..
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. II.
• Illustration: Ghaly 1994: Abb. 1. Courtesy of F. Arnold, DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Ghaly 1994: Abb. 1. Courtesy of F. Arnold, DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Ghaly 1994: Abb. 1. Courtesy of F. Arnold, DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Emery 1970: Pl. XX. Courtesy of The Egypt Exploration Society.
• Illustration: Emery 1966: Fig. 3. Courtesy of The Egypt Exploration Society.
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. II.
• Illustration: Smith & Jeffreys 1977: Fig. 1. Courtesy of The Egypt Exploration Society.
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 78.
• Illustration: Quibell 1923: Pl. I.
• Illustration: Ghaly 1994: Abb.1. Courtesy of F. Arnold, DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 5.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 6.
• Illustration: Saad 1969: Pl. 11. Copyright 1969 University of Oklahoma Press. Reproduced with permission. All Rights reserved.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1947: Map 3.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 3.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 15.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1947: Pl. XXXVI.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1947: Pl. XXXVII.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1947: Pl. XLI.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1947: Pl. LXVI
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1947: Pl. XXXVIII.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1947: Pl. XL.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 10.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 9.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 7
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1947: Pl. XXXIX.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1969: Pl. 9.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 16.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 17.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 8.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Köhler 2005: Pl. 13.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1947: Pl. LXI.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1947: Pln.2 and Köhler 2008b: Fig. 8b.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1947: Pln. 2 and Köhler 2008b: Fig. 8c.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 12
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan F.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 13.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 11.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan O.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Köhler 2005: Pl. 18.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Köhler 2001: Fig. 1.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1947: Pl. LXV.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan I.
• Illustration: Figure of the owner of Tomb 416.H.6, Ka-khet (After Saad 1957: Fig. 15) No tomb plan available.
• Illustration: Figure of the owner of Tomb 235.H.8, Sakhu (After Saad 1957: Fig. 23) No tomb plan available.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Köhler 2007: Fig. 2.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Köhler 2008b: Fig. 17.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 14.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan A.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan H.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan J
• Illustration: Figure of the owner of Tomb 109.H.9, Iu-Sen-Jet (After Saad 1957: Fig. 28) No tomb plan available.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan T
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Köhler 2003b: Fig. 2
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Köhler 2003b: Fig. 4.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Köhler 2007: Fig. 1.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Köhler 2009: Fig. 4.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Köhler 2008b: Fig. 6.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Köhler 2007: Fig. 8.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Köhler 2008b: Fig. 7.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan U.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan G.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan B.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan C.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan D.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan E.
• Illustration: Figure of the owner of Tomb 379.H.8 Nisi-Neith (After Saad 1957: Fig. 30) No tomb plan available.
• IIllustration: Figure of the owner of Tomb 391.H.8 Heken (After Saad 1957: Fig. 14) No tomb plan available.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan K.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan M.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan Q.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan R.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1957: Plan S.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Köhler 2008a: Fig. 1.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Köhler 2009: Fig. 1.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Fig 7.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Saad 1951: Plan 2
• Illustration: De Morgan 1895: Figs. 3-5.
• Illustration: After Alexanian & Seidlmayer 2002: Abb. 1 and 4. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Barsanti 1902: Figs. 5 and 6.
• Illustration: Stadelmann and Alexanian 1998: Abb. 5. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Stadelmann et al. 1993: Abb. 10--1. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Stadelmann et al. 1993: Abb. 12-3. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Stadelmann et al. 1993: Abb. 17. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Petrie 1914: Pl. XIV.
• Illustration: Petrie 1914: Pl. XIV.
• Illustration: Petrie, Wainwright & Gardiner 1913: Pl. LVI
• Illustration: Petrie 1914: Pl. XVIII.
• Illustration: Petrie 1914: Pl. XVIII.
• Illustration: Petrie & Mackay 1915: Pl. XII.5.
• Illustration: Petrie & Mackay 1915: Pl. XII.6.
• Illustration: Petrie 1999: Tarkhan tomb card KA1004. Courtesy of the Petrie Muesum of Egyptian Archaeology.
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Harpur 2001: Fig. 61.
• Illustration: Petrie 1892: Pl. VII; Reisner 1936: Fig 111.
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 113.
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: fig 112.
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 114.
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 109.
• 
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 108.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVIII.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVII.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVIII.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVII.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVIII.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVIII.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVIII
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVII.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVII.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVII.
• 
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVIII.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVII.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVII.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVIII.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVII.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XVIII.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XV.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XV.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XV.
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 101.
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 100.
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 102.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. IX.
• Illustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. IX
• 
• Illustration: Drawn by the author after Harpur 2001, fig. 38 and Jánosi 2006, Abb. 33
• I
• llustration: Petrie, Mackay and Wainwright 1910: Pl. XII
• Illustration: Petrie, Brunton & Murray 1923: Pl. XLII, fig. Q.
• Illustration: Petrie, Brunton & Murray 1923: Pl. XLII, fig. O.
• Illustration: Petrie, Brunton & Murray 1923: Pl. XLII, fig. T.
• Illustration: Petrie, Brunton & Murray 1923: Pl. XLII, fig. S.
• Illustration: Petrie, Brunton & Murray 1923: Pl. XLII, fig. Q.
• Illustration: Petrie, Brunton & Murray 1923: Pl. XLI, fig. M.
• Illustration: Petrie, Brunton & Murray 1923: Pl. XLI, fig. N.
• Illustration: Petrie, Brunton & Murray 1923: Pl. XLII, Fig U.
• 
• Illustration: Petrie, Brunton & Murray 1923: Pl. XLI, fig. R.
• 
• Illustration: Petrie, Brunton & Murray 1923: Pl. XLI, Fig J.
• Illustration: Petrie, Brunton & Murray 1923: Pl. XLI, fig. X.
• Illustration: Petrie, Brunton & Murray 1923: Pl. XLIII fig. AA.
• Illustration: Petrie, Brunton, & Murray 1923: Pl. XLIII fig. BA.
• Illustration: Petrie and Brunton 1924: Pl. LXXXI.
• Illustration: Petrie and Brunton 1924: Pl. LXXXI.
• 
• Illustration: Petrie and Brunton 1924: LXXXI.
• Illustration: Petrie and Brunton 1924: Pl. LXXXI
• 
• Illustration: Petrie and Brunton 1924: LXXXI.
• Illustration: Petrie and Brunton 1924: Pl. LXXXI.
• 
• Illustration: Ranke 1926: Abb. 4. Courtesy of Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
• Illustration: Ranke 1926: Abb. 6. Courtesy of Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
• Illustration: Brunton 1927: Pl. XII, fig. 2. Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.
• Illustration: Brunton 1927: Pl. XII, fig. 4. Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.
• Illustration: Brunton 1927: Pl. XII, fig. 5. Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.
• Illustration: Brunton 1927: Pl. XII, fig. 3. Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.
• Illustration: Brunton 1927: Pl. XXIV. Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.
• Illustration: Brunton 1927: Pl. VIII. Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.
• Illustration: Brunton 1927: Pl. XII, fig. 6. Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.
• Illustration: Brunton 1927: Pl. XI, fig. 1. Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.
• 
• Illustration: Brunton 1927: Pl. XII, fig. 16. Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.
• Illustration: Brunton 1927: Pl. XII, fig. 15. Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.
• Illustration: Brunton 1927: Pl. XII, fig. 14. Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Fig. 53.
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Fig 55.
• 
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Fig. 65.
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Fig. 68.
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Fig. 72.
• 
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Fig. 83.
• 
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Map II.
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 56.
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Fig. 76.
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Map I.
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Map II
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Fig. 91.
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Fig. 95.
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Figs. 93 and 94.
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Fig. 140.
• Illustration: Reisner 1908: Fig. 138.
• Illustration: Mace 1909: Fig. 21.
• Illustration: Mace 1909: Figs. 27-8.
• Illustration: Reisner 1932: Figs. 137 a and b.
• 
• Illustration: Reisner 1932: Fig. 157.
• Illustration: Reisner 1932: Figs. 195-6.
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 86.
• Illustration: Reisner 1932: Figs. 75a and b.
• Illustration: Reisner 1932: Fig. 143.
• 
• Illustration: Reisner 1932: Fig. 144.
• Illustration: Reisner 1932: Fig. 149.
• Illustration: Reisner 1932: Figs. 124 a and b.
• Illustration: Reisner 1932: Fig. 179.
• Illustration: Reisner 1932: figs. 200-1.
• Illustration: Reisner 1932: Fig. 161.
• Illustration: Garstang 1904: Pl. IVa
• Illustration: Garstang 1904: IVb.
• Illustration: Garstang 1904: Pl. XXI.
• Illustration: Garstang 1904: Pl. XXI.
• Illustration: Photograph by A. Dodson.
• Illustration: Garstang 1903: Pl. XVIII. Courtesy of Bernard Quaritch Ltd.
• Illustration: Garstang 1903: Pl. XXV. Courtesy of Bernard Quaritch Ltd.
• 
• Illustration: Garstang 1903: Pl. XXV. Courtesy of Bernard Quaritch Ltd.
• Illustration: Garstang 1903: Pl. XXV. Courtesy of Bernard Quaritch Ltd.
• Illustration: Reisner 1936: Fig. 49.
• Illustration: Dreyer, Hartung and Pumpenmeier 1998: Abb. 3. Courtesy of the DAI Cairo.
• Illustration: Hussein 2011: Fig. 9.
• Illustration: Hussein 2011: Fig. 4.
• Illustration: Peet and Loat 1913: Pl. XV.
• Illustration: Randall-MacIver and Mace 1902: Pl. IV, fig. 8.
• Illustration: Quibell 1896: Pl. IV, 15.
• Illustration: Quibell 1896: Pl. IV, 16
• Illustration: De Morgan 1897: Fig. 518.
• Illustration: Mond and Myers 1937: Pl. V. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society.
• 
• Illustration: Mond and Myers 1937: Pl. V. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society.
• Illustration: Myers and Fairman 1931: Pl. XLI. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society.
• Illustration: Myers and Fairman 1931: Pl. XLI. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society.
• Illustration: Myers and Fairman 1931: Pl. XLI. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society.
• Illustration: Myers and Fairman 1931: Pl. XLI. Courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society.
• Illustration: De Morgan 1908: Fig 35. Map of archaeological sites in the environs of Esna. No tomb plan available.
• Illustration: De Morgan 1909: Fig. 130.
• Illustration: Hendrickx and Van Rossum 1994: Pl. LVI.
• Illustration: After Hendrickx and Van Rossum 1994: Pl. LXIII and LXIV.
• Illustration: Hendrickx and Van Rossum 1994: Pl. LIV.
• Illustration: Limme 2008: Fig. 31.
• Illustration: Quibell 1896: Pls. I.4 and XXIII.
• Illustration: Quibell 1896: Pl. XXIII.
• Illustration: Friedman 2005: 4. Courtesy of the Hierakonpolis Expedition.
• Illustration: Friedman 2008b: Fig. 11. Courtesy of the Hierakonpolis Expedition.
• Illustration: Quibell and Green 1902: Pl. LXVII.
• 
• Illustration: Quibell and Green 1902: Pl. LXVII
• Illustration: Adams 2000: Fig. 5a. Courtesy of British Archaeological Reports Ltd.
• llustration: Drawing courtesy of the Hierakonpolis Expedition.
• Illustration: Adams 2000: Fig. 2a. Courtesy of British Archaeological Reports Ltd.
• Illustration: de Morgan 1908. Fig. 40
• Illustration: Cylindrical vase from El-Masa‘id of a type found in Burial 28 by de Morgan. Terracotta, Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 09.889.671 - No tomb drawing available.
• 
• Illustration: Firth 1927: 208.
• Illustration: Firth 1927: 211
• Illustration: Stevenson 2012: Fig. 12.
• Illustration: Williams 1986: Fig. 64. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
• Illustration: Williams 1986: Fig. 80. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
• Illustration: Williams 1986: Fig. 90. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
• 
• Illustration: Williams 1986: Fig. 110. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
• Illustration: Williams 1986: Fig. 140. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago
• Illustration: Williams 1986: Fig. 154. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
• Illustration: Williams 1986: Fig. 159. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
• Illustration: Williams 1986: Fig. 170. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
• Contents
• List of Figures and Maps
• Acknowledgements
• Abbreviations
• Conventions
• 1. Introduction
• 2. Substructure and access route typology
• 3. The early precursors of tomb security
• 4. The defence of the burial chamber
• 5. The security of the access route and its blockings
• 6. Mounds, mastabas and pyramids – the security of the superstructure
• 7. Conclusion
• Bibliography
• Charts A-Q
• Tomb Catalogue
• Tomb catalogue table of contents
• Index