Before and After School Physical Activity Programs

Frameworks, Critical Issues and Underserved Populations

Risto Marttinen, Erin E. Centeio, Thomas Quarmby, Risto Marttinen, Erin E. Centeio, Thomas Quarmby

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2020
• eBook ISBN: 9781000328134
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Physical Education

This is the first book to offer a critical examination of the delivery of before and after-school physical activity programs, from global perspectives. It introduces key theory and best practice in before and after-school physical activity research and programming, and is an essential resource for educators involved in the design and implementation of after-school programs.

With contributions from leading international researchers and practitioners in the field of health and physical education, the book provides an overview of research methods in before and after-school physical activity. It offers insight on theoretical frameworks and the implementation of programs as they relate to policy in schools, as well as an overview of social and emotional learning in after-school programs. The book also explores inclusive before and after-school physical activity programming for underserved communities, covering key topics from Positive Youth Development and urban programming to developing adult leaders and working with LGBTQI populations and children with disabilities.

This book is important reading for researchers in health and physical education, and policy-makers, teachers, youth workers and coaches working with children in physical education, health education, physical activity or sport.

1Implementing before- and after-school physical activity programs within the Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child framework

Erin E. Centeio, Heather Erwin, Jeanne Barcelona, and Hayley McKown

Participation in physical activity has many benefits for youth. Research has shown that physical activity can elicit numerous physical health benefits such as reduced blood pressure, decreased obesity, increased bone mineral density, as well as many mental health issues such as decreased depression (Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010). Additionally, research has shown that participating in physical activity as youth can decrease the risk of health issues and disease later in life (Warburton et al., 2006). Although the benefits of physical activity are relatively well known, many youth are not meeting the daily recommended guidelines for physical activity (Katzmarzyk et al., 2018). This is partially because of the decreased time spent in physical activity at school (CDC, 2015; IOM, 2013), but is also coupled with issues such as motivation, lack of support, access, etc. (Dumith et al., 2011; Humbert et al., 2006). Given the rise of obesity among youth, especially in countries such as the United States of America (USA), experts have called for schools to take on a larger role in increasing the amount of physical activity provided for youth to help meet the recommended guidelines of 60 minutes per day (IOM, 2013).

Since 1987, a Coordinated School Health (CSH) approach has informed schools and provided guidance for how to include components of health within the school environment specifically advocating for the importance of physical activity within the physical education setting (IOM, 2013; Pate et al., 2006). For years, physical education was a staple in school schedules and seen as a contributing part of the educational system. However, over time, as more emphasis was put on testing as part of the No Child Left Behind Act (2002), which was a somewhat controversial law put into place in 2001 as a means for leveling the playing field for all students who were working from some sort of disadvantage, such as minorities, those with low household income, those receiving special education services, and those who spoke English as a second language. In the U.S., time for physical activity through recess and physical education was rapidly diminished from the traditional school schedule (Anderson et al., 2011). This left advocates without resources or time to provide physical activity prompting creative efforts to promote physical activity during the school day, outside of the physical education classroom.

In 2013, in alignment with CSH and the then recent call of the Institutes of Medicine to implement Whole-of-School approaches, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) along with SHAPE America and Let's Move Active Schools launched the Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) model. The model is specific to the United States and its landscape and consists of five components: 1) physical education, 2) physical activity during school, 3) staff involvement, 4) family and community engagement, and 5) physical activity before and after-school (CDC, 2013; see Figure 1.1). Shortly after, in 2014, as an expansion of the CSH approach, the ASCD (formerly known as the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development) along with the CDC, launched the Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child approach (WSCC; ASCD, 2014; Lewallen et al., 2015). The WSCC served as an innovative way to encourage the educational arena to think beyond academic development to consider the holistic aspects that a child needs to develop. WSCC is comprised of 10 components (see Figure 1.2) with one specifically focused on physical activity and physical education (ASCD, 2014). The CSPAP model aligns with one component of the WSCC model and it focuses on mechanisms such as training, support, and resources that provide access and promotion of physical activity before, during, and after-school.

Figure 1.1 Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program

Note* Courtesy of the CDC and ASCD http:/​/​www.ascd.org/​programs/​learning-and-health/​wscc-model.aspx

Figure 1.2 Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child

Note* Courtesy of ASCD http:/​/​www.ascd.org/​programs/​learning-and-health/​wscc-model.aspx

Both CSPAP and WSCC models are United States centric but there are many models across the world that are similar in nature. These models are linked through their grounding in Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory (1979), which posits that there are many different levels of influencers that impact a child's development, starting at the micro level, which consists of one's own individual factors; next, the people directly and closely involved, the community and environments in which they engage as well as remote macro level factors including national and international policies and cultural forces. In a similar framework modified to represent health behaviors, Sallis and colleagues (2008) created the Social Ecological Framework that focuses on multiple influencers, both within a physical and social environment that influence health behavior. The Social Ecological Framework has been utilized to guide work being done towards positive health behavior change, such as increasing physical activity for youth. Collectively, these comprehensive models can be helpful because they help conceptualize all of the factors that influence health behaviors, such as facilitators and barriers to youth participation in physical activity.

Of particular interest in this chapter is the CSPAP framework because unlike the other models it comprehensively focuses on physical activity, therefore including before and after-school time. Understanding best practices in offering physical activity programming before and after-school is often understudied compared to other components such as physical education and during school physical activity (Beighle & Moore, 2012). Connecting before- and after-school programs within a CSPAP and whole child framework will demonstrate the importance of these programs in the model as they can be used to help contribute to increasing physical activity for youth while also reinforcing a culture of health in the school and community (Beets et al., 2009). If we hope to influence and increase physical activity participation among youth, it is imperative, that we provide guidance to practitioners and researchers on best practices to implementing physical activity in both before- and after-school settings. In the United States, this is often tied to the school system, however, around the world often time outside and community agencies facilitate sport and physical activity participation for youth.

Before- and after-school programs that align with Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child

Before- and after-school programs are not new, nor is the idea that they should include time for children to be physically active. However, with the added emphasis of community involvement as well as a distinguished call for before- and after-school programs through CSPAP programing (ASCD, 2014; CDC, 2013), before- and after-school programs have become more of a priority. Thus, they have been included in more recent publications for whole-of-school programming.

There are many initiatives around the globe that look to increase physical activity through a whole-of-school approach through ever evolving aims and tactics. Some programs focus more on physical activity time during the school day rather than out of school time but all maintain the shared goal of increasing total number of minutes of physical activity… Two specific examples include Active School Flag (ASF; Ireland) and Finnish Schools on the Move (Finland) (McMullen et al., 2015). Finnish Schools on the Move (McMullen et al., 2015) adopted a model where schools were allowed to choose how they were integrating additional physical activity throughout their school day. Therefore, the application looked different across schools, but each one took a whole-of-school approach. One application that schools used was Active Commute to Schools and although it helped with increasing the physical activity of children, schools also noted that they encountered some challenges (Turpeinen et al., 2013). ASF in Ireland has given liberty to schools to choose between three areas to improve their physical activity practices (physical education, physical activity, and community links). Guided by this directive, each school had the autonomy to design their own plan and work toward achieving a set goal. Once they achieved their goal they were instructed to send evidence in to the ASF program to be recognized. Outcomes indicated that the initiative resulted in schools prioritizing promotion of physical activity, as well as recognizing and adopting systematic approaches to increase physical activity (Ní Chróinín et al., 2012).

Many early adopters in the United States who aligned programming to CSH have been seen as leaders and visionaries with whole of school programming and physical activity. Programs such as Coordinated Approach to Child Health (CATCH) and Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) all were grounded in CSH and have incorporated before- and after-school programming in some way. Perhaps it was their positive outcomes on physical activity (Sallis et al., 2003) that spearheaded the evolution of the current WSCC and CSPAP models. Today, the literature base suggests that many United States scholars have continued to align projects and publications within a WSCC or CSPAP framework indicating a continued validation that models in support of comprehensive physical activity for youth are beneficial.

Unlike the governmental acceptance and support among international initiatives to provide youth physical activity in schools, many United States programs rely on private funding mechanisms. The After School Alliance is one of many external funding sources programmers look to for funding to enact programming. In a study conducted by Trost and colleagues (2008), seven after-school programs supported by the After School Alliance were examined to better understand the a...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication Page
• Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• List of contributors
• Introduction
• 1 Implementing before- and after-school physical activity 
programs within the Whole School, Whole Community, 
Whole Child framework
• 2 Using restorative practices in out-of-school physical 
activity programs
• 3 An activist sport approach to before- and after-school 
programming: Co-creating empowering possibilities with 
youth from socially vulnerable backgrounds
• 4 Positive youth development through sport: Enhancing contribution
• 5 Integrating health and physical activity with social emotional 
learning in before- and after-school programs
• 6 Made2Move 3.0: PETE students as design thinkers
• 7 Ten Years Later: What we learned about after-school 
programming from the Fitness Improves Thinking in 
Kids (FITKids) Clinical Trial
• 8 REACH after-school: Integrating literacy and 
PA in under-served communities
• 9 ‘Getting lost,’ being flexible and using innovative methods in 
an after-school program
• 10 Care-experienced youth and before- and after-school 
physical activity
• 11 Sport for development programming in developing and 
conflict-affected regions
• 12 Challenges and opportunities in urban after-school programming
• 13 Outside the box: LGTBQ-inclusive physical activity programs
• 14 Before- and after-school programs for students with intellectual 
and developmental disabilities
• 15 The role of informal sport in after-school physical activity
• 16 Preparing adult leaders to work within sport-based youth 
development settings
• 17 Funding before- and after-school physical activity programs
• 18 It’s time to predict the implications of outsourcing health 
and physical education and extra-curricular physical activity 
programming
• 19 Student voice in physical education and before- and after-school 
physical activity settings
• Conclusion
• Index