Psalms as Torah (Studies in Theological Interpretation)

Reading Biblical Song Ethically

Wenham, Gordon J., Bartholomew, Craig G., Green, Joel, Seitz, Christopher

• Publisher: Baker Academic
• Year: 2012
• ISBN:
  9781441236388
• Topic: Theologie & Religion
• Subtopic: Biblische Studien

The Psalms are the most-read part of the Old Testament, but their importance for ethics has often been overlooked. However, the Psalms offer some of the most potent ethical instruction in the Bible. In this book internationally renowned Old Testament scholar Gordon Wenham examines the source of the Psalms' power, reflects on their main ethical themes, and shows how they function as prayers that change us. Wenham makes an important contribution to biblical scholarship and breaks new ground in discussions of Old Testament ethics, yet he writes accessibly, making this book invaluable for students, scholars, and pastors.

1
Jewish and Christian Approaches to the Psalms

We begin a detailed review of the ethics of the psalms by looking for evidence of their use in the Old Testament period. In this chapter it is not my purpose to enter into the critical debates about the date of the psalms or the historical reliability of the narrative accounts of Old Testament worship (some of these issues will surface in the next chapter). Here my concern is simply to record what the canonical texts say about the use of the psalms in Old Testament times. I then will review the use of the psalms in subsequent eras.

The books of Samuel are framed by two psalms, the song of Hannah (1 Sam. 2:1–10) and David’s song of deliverance (2 Sam. 22:2–51) (the first is not found in the Psalter, but the second is virtually the same as Ps. 18). There are a number of verbal links between the two songs, which suggests that their location in the books of Samuel is deliberate.[16] It is generally recognized that these two songs encapsulate some of the key themes of 1–2 Samuel. But for our purpose, it is not the message of these songs that interests us at the moment, but rather the incidental light that they shed on the use of psalms in worship. It is not clear whether Hannah is viewed as composing her song on the spot or as quoting or adapting some existing song; the close parallels with Psalm 113 have led some commentators to conclude that Hannah’s song is an adaptation of that psalm or vice versa.[17] The text simply says, “And Hannah prayed and said” (1 Sam. 2:1).

But what is clear is that her singing accompanied the offering of the sacrifice that she brought in fulfillment of her vow. Scholars may debate whether Hannah actually sang the song recorded in this passage, but its presence here clearly presupposes that it was accepted practice to sing psalms or similar songs to accompany sacrifice. This custom seems to be alluded to in other passages too. Songs and sacrifice accompanied the transfer of the ark to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 6:5, 13–15). In 1 Kings 10:12 it is noted that almug wood was brought from Ophir to make, among other things, “lyres and harps for the singers,” who probably were engaged in temple worship.

The books of Chronicles offer many more details about temple worship. According to 1 Chronicles 6:31–32, David appointed the Levites to lead worship in the Jerusalem sanctuary: “These are the men whom David put in charge of the service of song in the house of the Lord after the ark rested there. They ministered with song before the tabernacle of the tent of meeting until Solomon built the house of the Lord in Jerusalem, and they performed their service according to their order.” Among the musical Levites named are Heman, Asaph, and Ethan (1 Chron. 6:33, 39, 44; cf. 15:16–17).[18]

Song is first mentioned when the ark was brought from Kiriath-jearim to Jerusalem: “And David and all Israel were rejoicing before God with all their might, with song and lyres and harps and tambourines and cymbals and trumpets” (1 Chron. 13:8). It is not clear what role the Levites were playing in this carnival-like procession, which was cut short by the death of Uzzah (1 Chron. 13:9–14). However, when the transfer was resumed in a much more disciplined manner, the Levites were in charge of transporting the ark and led the accompanying music. First Chronicles 15:15–16 reports, “And the Levites carried the ark of God on their shoulders with the poles, as Moses had commanded according to the word of the Lord. David also commanded the chiefs of the Levites to appoint their brothers as the singers who should play loudly on musical instruments, on harps and lyres and cymbals, to raise sounds of joy.” When they arrived in Jerusalem, Chronicles records that David appointed the Levites to sing thanksgivings. The texts sung on this occasion are given in 1 Chronicles 16:8–36, and they correspond to Psalm 105:1–15 (1 Chron. 16:8–22); 96:1–13 (1 Chron. 16:23–33); and 106:47–48 (1 Chron. 16:35–36). Presumably, these are to be understood as just a selection of the psalms used on this great occasion. It is not clear what others may have been used.[19]

When the ark was brought into the newly built temple of Solomon, the singers sang, “For [the Lord] is good, for his steadfast love endures forever” (2 Chron. 5:13). The same refrain rang out after Solomon’s prayer at the dedication of the temple (2 Chron. 7:3, 6); it is found in a number of psalms (Pss. 100:5; 106:1; 107:1; 118:1, 29; 136:1). He also used Psalm 132:8–10 on this occasion (2 Chron. 6:41–42).

Some two centuries after Solomon, Hezekiah restored the temple worship. In 2 Chronicles 29:26–30 we are given a vivid picture of the use of music in the temple:

The Levites stood with the instruments of David, and the priests with the trumpets. Then Hezekiah commanded that the burnt offering be offered on the altar. And when the burnt offering began, the song to the Lord began also, and the trumpets, accompanied by the instruments of David king of Israel. The whole assembly worshiped, and the singers sang and the trumpeters sounded. All this continued until the burnt offering was finished.

When the offering was finished, the king and all who were present with him bowed themselves and worshiped. And Hezekiah the king and the officials commanded the Levites to sing praises to the Lord with the words of David and of Asaph the seer. And they sang praises with gladness, and they bowed down and worshiped.

This passage indicates that singing accompanied the offering of the sacrifices and continued afterward. It also states that psalms of David and Asaph, “the words of David and of Asaph,” were used. The Passover celebrations that soon followed were also marked by song. According to 2 Chronicles 30:21–22, “The people of Israel who were present at Jerusalem kept the Feast of Unleavened Bread seven days with great gladness, and the Levites and the priests praised the Lord day by day, singing with all their might to the Lord. . . . So they ate the food of the festival for seven days, sacrificing peace offerings and giving thanks to the Lord, the God of their fathers.”

According to 2 Chronicles 20:21, Jehoshaphat exhorted his army, and then they went into battle with a choir singing, “Give thanks to the Lord, for his steadfast love endures for ever.” This refrain introduces a number of psalms (e.g., Pss. 106:1; 107:1; 118:1; 136:1) whose sentiments could be seen as appropriate for a devout army to chant.

The fact that Chronicles was written six centuries after the time of David and that the parallel passages in the books of Samuel barely mention his contribution to temple music prompted Wilhelm de Wette[20] (1806–7) and later Julius Wellhausen[21] (1878) to challenge the reliability of Chronicles. Its testimony is often seen to be a reflection of what the postexilic author thought should have been sung and done in the first temple rather than a reliable witness to what really happened in the times of the monarchy. But as far as the psalms are concerned, the work of form critics such as Hermann Gunkel and Sigmund Mowinckel has made it much more plausible to suppose that many psalms were originally used in the preexilic temple. As H. G. M. Williamson has observed, “That David should have had a particular interest in the music of the cult, and made arrangements for it, is in itself highly probable. His association with music is known from ancient traditions.”[22]

Furthermore, other temples in the ancient Near East had singers attached to them,[23] so it would be surprising if the Jerusalem temple had none. For our purpose, it matters little which critical stance is taken. It is sufficient to recognize that the books of Chronicles and the titles of the psalms point to a conviction that the psalms were used from earliest times in Jerusalem’s public worship. Those who reject Chronicles’ testimony about the music of the first temple generally suppose that it reflects the practices of the second temple.

The books of Ezra and Nehemiah give us glimpses of worship in the fifth century BC. There were singers who served both in the temple and from time to time elsewhere. Two hundred male and female singers returned from Babylon with the first group (Ezra 2:65).[24] They settled in villages outside Jerusalem (Ezra 2:70; Neh. 12:29) and should have enjoyed, as Levites, a share of the tithes (Neh. 11:23; 13:10). They traced their office back to the time of David (Neh. 12:46). Their first duties are described in Ezra 3:10–11:

And when the builders laid the foundation of the temple of the Lord, the priests in their vestments came forward with trumpets, and the Levites, the sons of Asaph, with cymbals, to praise the Lord, according to the directions of David king of Israel. And they sang responsively, praising and giving thanks to the Lord,

“For he is good,

for his steadfast love endures forever toward Israel.”

And all the people shouted with a great shout when they praised the Lord, because the foundation of the house of the Lord was laid.

We have noted that this psalm fragment is used several times in Chronicles, so it seems likely that “here it is intended to be illustrative of the type of psalms of praise that would have been used on such an occasion.”[25]

At the completion of the temple there is no mention of what the Levites sang; it is noted only that “they set . . . the Levites in their divisions” (Ezra 6:18). But when the fortification of Jerusalem was complete, two choirs with accompanying bands processed around the newly rebuilt walls. They set out from the Valley Gate at the southwest of the city. One procession headed north, moving around the city clockwise, while the other headed south and then east, circling the city in a counterclockwise direction. They met in the temple courtyard. Nehemiah 12:40–43 then reports, “So both choirs of those who gave thanks stood in the house of God, and I [Nehemiah] and half of the officials with me. . . . And the singers sang with Jezrahiah as their leader. And they offered great sacrifices that day and rejoiced, for God had made them rejoice with great joy; the women and children also rejoiced. And the joy of Jerusalem was heard far away.” We are not told the text of the thanksgiving songs, but it seems likely that selected psalms were used. These were sung by the professional singers, but there is a hint that the people, “women and children,” joined in.

I will argue later that the present shape of the Psalter suggests that it was a book designed to be memorized. It is therefore intriguing that commentators have noticed close parallels between some of the psalms and the prayers in Nehemiah. Nehemiah 4:4–5 is Nehemiah’s prayer against Sanballat and his allies. “The whole prayer is reminiscent of such Psalms as 44, 74 and 79.”[26] Even more striking is the national confession in Nehemiah 9. This “is often compared with Psalm 106 precisely because both passages use historical recollection as a vehicle for confession and as a ground on which to base an appeal for mercy.”[27] Other psalms whose similarity with Nehemiah 9 has been noted include Psalms 38; 51; 105; 130; 135; 136. In some cases the similarity is solely one of penitential tone, but the detailed review of Israel’s history in other psalms is sufficiently close to make probable some dependence of Nehemiah 9 on them. If the devout in Israel were already memorizing the psalms, we could readily explain the similarities.

For the use of the psalms in the intertestamental period there are two main sources: the books of Maccabees[28] and the Dead Sea Scrolls from Qumran. In the books of Maccabees we see psalms being used in contexts similar to those described in Chronicles: the rededication of the temple and in or after battle. For example, in the battle against Gorgias, “[Judas] raised the battle cry, with hymns; then he charged against Gorgias’s troops” (2 Macc. 12:37). They did the same after defeating Gorgias: “On their return they sang hymns and praises to Heaven—‘For he is good, for his mercy endures forever’ ” (1 Macc. 4:24). At the rededication of the temple in 164 BC they offered sacrifice and sang psalms. “They rose and offered sacrifice, as the law directs, on the new altar of burnt offering that they had built. . . . It was dedicated with songs and harps and lutes and cymbals” (1 Macc. 4:53–54; cf. 2 Macc. 10:7).

The Dead Sea Scrolls are generally believed to have been deposited by the occupants of the Qumran settlement, which was founded by dissident priests from Jerusalem.[29] They held that Jonathan Maccabeus had apostatized by assuming the high priesthood, so they set up their own community dedicated to observing the law strictly. Their community at Qumran operated rather like a monastery, with long hours devoted to study and prayer. Among the biblical texts recovered from the Qumran caves were fragments of thirty-six Psalms manuscripts, which is more than any other biblical book (Deuteronomy [30×] and Isaiah [21×] were the next most copied books).[30] The sheer number of manuscripts shows the importance of the psalms to this Jewish sect, but we do not know how they used them. Philo (On The Contemplative Life 80) mentions that at their banquet on the Feast of Pentecost the president commented on the Scriptures and then rose and chanted a hymn, either of his own making or an old one. Then all the others did the same. An “old hymn” could well have been a psalm. We have seen from Samuel and Chronicles that often sacrifice was accompanied by the singing of psalms. But at Qumran the priests could not offer sacrifice, so one might well surmise that they hung on to the tradition of psalm singing even more ardently. The specifically sectarian scrolls, such as the Community Rule, the War Rule, and the Thanksgiving Hymns,[31] give an insight into their own compositions and show a deep indebtedness to the psalms.[32]

Use of the Psalms in Worship in the Second Temple and the Synagogue

Although it is generally agreed that the psalms were sung in the rebuilt temple in the centuries preceding the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70, it is very difficult to know which psalms were used on which occasion. It is likely that later synagogue practice reflects older temple practice at many points, but in most cases it is impossible to be dogmatic. At one point, though, we can be sure of continuity between temple and later practice. According to the Septuagint (second-century-BC Greek translation),[33] certain psalms were to be sung on different days of the week.[34] This is confirmed by the Mishnah and continues to be the case to the present.

Some psalms are used in the daily synagogue services. These include Psalms 6; 20; 25; 30; 134; 145–150, as well as many individual verses from other psalms. On the Sabbath more psalms are used, including, among Ashkenazi Jews, Psalms 19; 29; 34; 90–93; 95–99; 104...