The Text of the New Testament

From Manuscript to Modern Edition

J. Harold Greenlee

• Publisher: Baker Academic
• Year: 2008
• Print ISBN:
  9780801046452
• eBook ISBN:
  9781441241757
• Topic: Teologia e religione
• Subtopic: Critica e interpretazione biblica

The Text of the New Testament is a brief introduction for the lay person into the process whereby the New Testament came to be. It describes the basics of ancient writing tools, manuscripts, the work of scribes, and how to think about differences in what the various manuscripts say. This is a revised and expanded edition with a completely new chapter on how contemporary English translations fit in with our understanding of the New Testament text. Geared to the lay person who is uninformed or confused about textual criticism, Greenlee begins this volume by explaining the production of ancient manuscripts. He then traces the history of the development of the New Testament text. Readers are next introduced to the basic principles of textual criticism, the concept of variant readings, and how to determine which variant has the greatest likelihood of being the original reading. To illustrate the basic principles, several sample New Testament texts are examined. The book concludes by putting textual criticism in perspective as involving only a minute portion of the entire New Testament text, the bulk of which is indisputably attested by the manuscripts.

CHAPTER ONE

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What Ancient Books Looked Like

What did a book of the New Testament look like when it was first written in the year A.D. 50, 60, 70, or some other date in the first Christian century? After the books were written, how were they copied and handed down through the centuries to reach us as we know them now? When we read our New Testament today, can we be sure that we are reading what Luke, John, Paul, and the other authors wrote so long ago? Why do various translations differ with one another? What about the footnotes that say, “Other ancient MSS read . . .”?

These are some of the questions that are answered in the study called “textual criticism.”

From the most ancient times until just over five hundred years ago, when someone wrote a book, a poem, a letter, or anything else, there was no way of duplicating it except by hand, one copy at a time. Of course, most of the things that were written—letters, receipts, notices, and such—did not need to be copied. Among the other ancient writings, however, were great pieces of literature of which many people wanted copies, not only soon after they were written but for many centuries afterward. This was the situation with the Bible, too, of course. As a result of this demand, hundreds of ancient MSS (i.e., handwritten copies) not only of the biblical books but also of many of the books of other authors of ancient times can be seen today in libraries in many parts of the world. After an author wrote his book (the original MS was called an “autograph,” meaning “self-writing”), his MS was copied, then copies were made from this copy, others from these, and so on, often through several centuries. The autographs of these ancient books, including the Bible, perished ages ago, and we have only copies of copies, most of them many copies away from the originals and therefore differing from the original and from one another to some extent.

It is because of this that the science of textual criticism is needed, for study not only of the Bible but of any ancient writing the original of which is lost. Textual criticism is the study of copies of an ancient writing to try to determine the exact words of the text as the author originally wrote them. Scholars use textual criticism to study the MSS of the classical authors, especially the Greek and Latin writers, such as Plato, Herodotus, Homer, Livy, Cicero, and Virgil. Since the Bible is the most important of ancient writings, textual criticism of the Bible, and especially of the New Testament, is the most important field of textual criticism. In this volume we will be concentrating on textual criticism of the New Testament.

It is important to note at the outset, however, that textual criticism is not at all the same thing as literary criticism, which is sometimes called “higher criticism.” Literary criticism attempts to find out the sources underlying an author’s work—that is, it tries to determine where he got his information. This “higher criticism” has often been applied to the Bible in a destructive way, and it has come to be looked down on by many evangelical Christians. But, as I say, textual criticism is quite distinct from literary criticism. Textual criticism simply takes the known MSS of the New Testament, studies the differences between them, and attempts by established principles to determine the exact wording of the New Testament originals.

The Importance of New Testament Textual Criticism

As I just noted, the most important field of textual criticism is the study of the MSS of the New Testament. This is true for three reasons. In the first place, the New Testament is the most important of all ancient literary works. In the second place, the number of ancient MSS of the New Testament known today is far greater than that of any other ancient book. This gives the New Testament a far greater field for the application of textual criticism. The ancient Greek and Latin classics are known today, in some cases, from only one surviving MS. In other cases there are three, fifty, or a hundred MSS. Homer’s writings, which have some 2,200 MSS, are a rare exception. For the New Testament, on the other hand, we presently know of over 5,700 Greek MSS, 10,000 Latin MSS, and an additional 1,000 MSS in other ancient languages.

In the third place, the MSS of the New Testament that are known today include some that were copied much nearer to the time when these books were originally written than is the case with other ancient books. The oldest known MSS of some of the Greek classics were copied over a thousand years after the author wrote his book. The oldest known MSS of most of the Latin classics were copied from three hundred to seven hundred years after these books were originally written. In the case of the New Testament, however, one MS known today that contains most of the Gospel of John was copied less than one hundred years after the gospel was originally written, and we have numerous MSS of various parts of the New Testament that were copied three hundred years or less after the books were originally written.

What can we conclude from all this? If scholars believe the MSS of the classics at their disposal to be relatively reliable copies of these ancient books, how much more certain may we be, then, that the MSS of the New Testament that we possess give us the original text of the New Testament accurately, especially since there are so many more of these MSS, and since they were copied much nearer the dates when the originals were written!

We should also mention that MSS of the New Testament differ greatly in the amount of text they contain. One of the two oldest is a tiny fragment that contains only part of three or four verses of the Gospel of John. Other MSS contain the entire New Testament. Between these extremes, various MSS contain one New Testament book, one leaf, part of one book, or several books.

Although the many MSS of the New Testament differ from one another, we must not exaggerate the importance of the differences that are found in them. There is no question of separating “orthodox” MSS from “heretical” ones. In fact, all of the ancient MSS contain the word of God, and they all agree in most of the words of their text. Textual criticism, therefore, deals mostly with small details of differences between the MSS.

Why Textual Criticism Is Needed

Perhaps we should speak a bit more specifically about why it is so important to study and compare the ancient MSS of the New Testament or of any other ancient book. As we have noted, in ancient times the only way to reproduce a book was to make one copy at a time by hand. This meant not only that copies of the New Testament were expensive but also that no two copies of a New Testament book would be completely identical. Small errors and differences would almost certainly creep in as a result of ordinary human frailty, differences in handwriting, and the fact that the Greek text was written without any breaks between words. When scribes made further copies of these copies, they might discover and correct some errors, but they would unwittingly reproduce most of the errors and add a few more of their own.

Thus, in general, the more copies by which a MS is removed from its original, the more it may differ from the original. At the same time, it must be emphasized once again that the total of these differences and errors affects only a small portion of the text, especially so far as differences of meaning are concerned. No essential truth or doctrine of Scripture is placed in doubt by differences between the most reliable MSS. Yet the New Testament is of such supreme importance that it is well worth our while to study the MSS to make even small improvements in our knowledge and our assurance concerning the original words of the authors.

CHAPTER TWO

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How Ancient Manuscripts Were Written

Down through the centuries, people have written on a great variety of materials. In ancient times these materials have included such diverse surfaces as the leaves and bark of trees, linen cloth, broken pieces of pottery (called “ostraca” or “potsherds”), walls of buildings, metal, and wooden tablets coated with wax.

Waxed Tablets

Waxed tablets were used by people of Greece and Rome before the Christian era. To make these tablets, a piece of wood was hollowed slightly and coated with wax, making something that looked a bit like a child’s slate of more recent times. Writing was done with a pointed stick called a stylus, and the writing could be erased by smoothing the wax surface. These tablets were used for temporary writings and for personal correspondence. They were also used at times for legal documents, in which case two tablets would be placed face to face with the writing inside and fastened together with leather thongs run through holes at the edges of the tablets. In one of his writings St. Augustine mentions some tablets he owned, although his were made of ivory instead of wood. Luke 1:63 tells us that Zechariah, the father of John the Baptist, used a tablet, probably of this type (this is what is meant by the phrase “writing table” in the KJV), to write his son’s name.

Papyrus

Of course waxed tablets were not suitable for long stories or for any other text that was meant to be read again and again. For literary works the ancient authors used papyrus, the material from which our word “paper” is derived. The oldest known papyrus fragment comes from Egypt and is said to have been written about 2400 B.C. It was the most common writing material in Greece in the fifth century B.C. It was inexpensive and convenient and was used for literary works as well as for such things as letters, receipts, and business matters.

The papyrus plant is a reed that grew in swampy areas in the Nile River delta and a few other places in the Mediterranean world. (I personally first saw papyrus plants growing in San Jose, Costa Rica.) The plant had a triangular stalk (although I am told that those in the Los Angeles Arboretum have round stalks) with a tassel at the top, and grew to a height of six to twelve feet. In order to make writing material, the outer skin of the stalk was stripped off and the pithy center was cut into thin strips. The strips were laid side by side to the desired size and then another layer was laid crosswise on top. Either paste or the juice of the plant may have been used to hold the layers together. Once assembled, the sheets were pounded, dried, and then smoothed with a piece of ivory or a shell.

[Image not included because of rights restrictions]

Papyrus manuscript construction: one layer of strips was pasted crosswise over another layer.

The pith of the papyrus plant was called biblos, from which such English words as “bibliography” and “Bible” are derived. A papyrus sheet is mentioned in 2 John 12. The Greek word in this verse (chartes, from which the English word “chart” is derived) is translated “paper” in various English versions.

Papyrus sheets were made in sizes from about six by nine inches to twelve by fifteen inches. The sheets were overlapped slightly and pasted together in long strips of twenty sheets, then rolled up for sale. Of course, the purchaser could paste several rolls together if he wanted to produce a long text. The scroll of the Gospel of Matthew would have been about thirty feet long, which was about the practical limit for the length of a papyrus scroll.

During the time of the Roman Empire the government controlled the papyrus trade. As the rolls were prepared for sale, the names of the officials responsible for this trade would be written on the first page. The Greek term for this first page was protokollon, or “first glued sheet,” and it is this word that has given us our English word “protocol.”

A book written on these papyrus rolls was called a biblos or biblion. This word appears several times in the New Testament, including Matt 1:1, Luke 3:4, and Acts 1:20. It means “scroll” rather than “book” as we think of the term. If a book required several scrolls, each scroll or volume was called a tomos, which means “cutting.” Even in our day a large, scholarly book is sometimes called a “weighty tome.”

Writing was done on the side of the scroll on which the papyrus strips were laid horizontally, and the scroll was always rolled so that this would be the inside of the scroll. It was more difficult to write on the other side of the scroll, where the papyrus strips were laid vertically, because this entailed writing across the fibers of the papyrus. Only rarely was this done; however, Rev 5:1 refers to such a scroll written on both sides, probably to indicate that the author had so much to say that he could not get it all written on the proper side of the scroll.

The Egyptians exported papyrus rolls to other countries. Papyrus was the most common writing material until the third Christian century, and it continued to be used for secular classical literature until the sixth or seventh century. So it is clear that the original MSS of the New Testament were written on papyrus. Papyrus sheets were perishable, however, and few books or other documents written on papyrus in ancient times have survived except in a few very dry places, such as the sands of Egypt.

Parchment

The skins of animals, made into scrolls of tanned leather, were also used to receive writing in ancient times. Skins made strong and durable rolls. They were used by the Persians, the Greeks, and especially by the Hebrews, but not much by the Egyptians, since Egypt had a plentiful supply of papyrus. The oldest leather scroll presently known is one written in 1468 B.C. describing the victory by King Tuthmosis III at Megiddo in that year. The Hebrews continued to use leather scrolls for their Scriptures long into the Christian era, and even now leather scrolls of the Hebrew Old Testament are common in Jewish places of worship.

It was a later improvement, however, that brought animal skins into common use as a writing material. In this process, instead of being tanned, the skins were soaked in quicklime water, and the hair was scraped off. The skins were scraped on both sides, dried, and rubbed with chalk and pumice stone. The result was a fine, smooth writing surface of long-lasting quality.

Skins treated in this way were known as “vellum” or “parchment.” Vellum properly means “calfskin” (the word “veal” is related to it), but the term was later applied to other skins of finer quality as well. The word “parchment” comes from the name of the city Pergamus, which was noted for the quality of parchment produced there. The term was originally used to denote skins of lesser quality than the finer vellum. Now, however, the tw...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Preface
• Abbreviations
• 1. What Ancient Books Looked Like
• 2. How Ancient Manuscripts Were Written
• 3. The Ancient Records of the Greek New Testament
• 4. The New Testament through the Centuries
• 5. The New Testament Meets the Printing Press
• 6. More Manuscripts, and What They Revealed
• 7. Determining the Correct Reading
• 8. Looking at Some New Testament Variants
• 9. The New Testament Text and Modern Translations
• 10. What Shall We Say to These Things?
• Notes
• Bibliography
• Index of People and Subjects
• Index of Biblical References