Organizations are increasingly implementing programs and policies to improve the health and wellâbeing of employees (Goetzel, Roemer, LissâLevinson, & Samoly, 2008). Such efforts are typically rooted in the belief that a healthy worker is a productive worker (Cooper & Bevan, 2014) and that increasing the health of workers will result in an economic return to the organization (e.g., Baicker, Cutler, & Song, 2010). Indeed, the very definition of a healthy workplace is based on the view that employee health and wellâbeing can be integrated with organizational goals such as profitability and productivity (Sauter, Lim, & Murphy, 1996).
Although the initial focus of such efforts was on the physical health of employees (Baicker, Cutler, & Song, 2010), more recently there has been a renewed focus on psychological wellâbeing and mental health issues in the workplace (Kelloway, 2017a). In the developed world, mental health problems are a leading cause of workplace disability (Kelloway, 2017a; Mental Health Commission of Canada [MHCC], 2012) and are among the most costly issues facing employers (Dimoff & Kelloway, 2016). The cost of mental health problems and mental illness has been estimated to be $50 billion annually in Canada (MHCC, 2012), between $150 billion and $300 billion each year in the United States (American Institute of Stress, 2005), and over 135 million euros each year (approximately 5% of GDP, McDaid, 2011) in the European Union.
Healthy workplace programs, defined as âemployerâsponsored initiatives directed at improving the health and wellbeing of workersâ (Goetzel et al., 2008, p. 4) are expected to mitigate these costs by improving productivity, reducing absenteeism and reducing healthâcare costs (Goetzel & Ozminkowski, 2008). There are certainly data that support this expectationâsuggesting that when organizations focus on creating healthier workplaces, they also reap a financial benefit (e.g., Grawitch, Gottschalk, & Munz, 2006; Kelloway & Day, 2005). Unfortunately, in reviewing this literature, Dimoff, Kelloway, and MacLellan (2014, p. 317) suggested that the extant research is âcharacterized by methodological inadequacies including poor research design (e.g., the lack of control groups and reliance on questionable outcome measures), poorly articulated logic (i.e., inadequate articulation of how a given outcome translates into organizational performance) and narrow focus (e.g., focusing on single conditions, outcomes, or types or organizations)â.
A tremendous amount of research has demonstrated the efficacy of healthy workplace programs in improving both individual and organizational outcomes (Baicker et al., 2010; Goetzel, Ozminkowski, Sederer, & Mark, 2002; Grawitch, Gottschalk, & Munz, 2006; Kelloway & Day, 2005). Reductions in high blood pressure, excess body fat, and elevated levels of cholesterol (Goetzel et al., 2002, 2008), as well as improvements in organizational outcomes, such as reduced turnover, better accident rates, and even competitive marketplace advantage (Greening and Turban, 2000) have been associated with healthy workplace initiatives. Despite these findings, concerns about the effectiveness of healthy workplace initiatives remain.
Dimoff et al. (2014) document at least three of the most pressing concerns with healthy workplace initiatives. First, the program may be inappropriately targetedâbeing aimed at, or used by, individuals who would not particularly benefit from their participation. Sponsored gym memberships, for example, may be used by those who go to the gym anyway but not be used by those who are less activeâand who would benefit most from the initiative. Second, organizational resources (e.g., mental health services) may be underutilized (Linnan et al., 2008). Dimoff and Kelloway (2016) developed a resource utilization model in which they suggested that individuals may not (a) recognize that they could benefit from a resource or program, (b) be aware of what resources/programs are available or (c) use the program or resource because of stigma or other concerns. As they note, potentially useful initiatives such as employee assistance programs remain widely underutilized by employees (Able Minded Solutions, ...
