Studies on Ottoman Science and Culture

Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2020
• Print ISBN: 9780367636609
• eBook ISBN: 9781000329452
• Edition: 1
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: World History
• Index: History

Studies on Ottoman Science and Culture brings together eleven articles by distinguished historian Ekmeleddin ?hsano?lu.

The book addresses multiple issues related to the histories of science and culture during the Ottoman era. Most of the articles contained in this volume were the first contributions to their respective topics, and they continue to provoke discussion and debate amongst academics to this day. The first volume of the author's collected papers that appeared in the Variorum Collected Studies (2004) dispelled the negative opinions towards Ottoman science asserted by scholars of the previous generation. In this new volume, the author continues to explore and develop the paradigm of scientific activities and cultural interactions both within and beyond the Ottoman Empire. One of the topics examined is the attitude of Islamic scholars towards revolutionary notions in Western science, including Copernican heliocentrism and Darwin's theory of evolution.

This book will appeal to scholars and students of Ottoman history, as well as those interested in the history of science and cultural history. (CS1098).

Part 1
OTTOMAN SCIENCE

1
SCIENCE IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu

Scientific activities observed within the borders of the Ottoman Empire throughout the six centuries of its history displayed a unique course of development. Although the Ottomans had shared many mutual elements with the other Islamic societies remaining outside the Ottoman Empire from the viewpoint of historical heritage and tradition, they also had some differences due to the geographical location, administration of the state and the dynamism of the society. Thus, Ottoman science had an innovative attribute considering the developments experienced, even though it had common roots with the Islamic world outside the Ottoman lands as regards its sources. Ottoman scientific tradition was initially formed under the influence of the experiences of earlier Islamic centres of science and culture. However, after a short period of time, Ottoman science reached a point where it could influence the early centres of science and culture and serve as an example. On the other hand, this innovative character of the Ottomans was emphasized by the fact that as of the seventeenth century the influences of Western science gradually appeared in the Ottoman world and began influencing other Islamic countries. These developments brought the Ottomans, who represented the Islamic world as a whole, to a point that constituted a unique synthesis between Islam and the modern West.

The great changes in the scientific and educational life of the Ottomans had been realized within an extensive time span. Consequently, it is difficult to connect the radical changes in Ottoman history to specific events or to start as of a certain date. In general, “old and new” were parallel and they survived together. In this article we shall attempt to analyse the outline of the two stages of Ottoman science. At the same time, the subject of the formation and development of the classical Ottoman tradition of science that was based on the Islamic tradition of science prior to the Ottomans and especially as based on the heritage of the Seljuks will be briefly discussed. However, Ottoman scientific tradition also developed with the contributions made from outside the Empire as well as the relevant aspects of Western scientific tradition which developed as the result of close relations with the West. In this chapter, the works in languages other than Turkish, Arabic and Persian written by scholars from the non-Muslim population composed of the Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians, Serbians, Hungarians and Romanians who were members of the Christian sects and Jews living in the Asian and European territories of the Empire and the scientific activities occurring in these cultural circles will not be considered. The reason is that at present the studies related to Ottoman science have not reached an intensity which would assist in considering this subject in a satisfactory manner. No doubt the general and comprehensive evaluations related to Ottoman science will certainly become perfected with the consideration of these aspects, which have not drawn much attention or been given the degree of interest they deserve.¹

1 For the history of Ottoman science in general see E. İhsanoğlu, “Ottoman Educational and Scholarly Scientific Institutions”, in History of Ottoman State and Society, 2, Istanbul, 2002, pp. 357–515; for a general summary see E. İhsanoğlu, “Osmanlı Bilimi” (Ottoman science), pp. 21–38, in Büyük Cihad’dan Frenk Fodulluğuna (From the great holy war to the European presumptuousness), (Istanbul, 1996); for the English of the same chapter see “Ottoman Science,” in Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, ed. Helaine Selin, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997, pp. 799–805.

Classical Ottoman scientific tradition and institutions

Ottoman science was established on the scientific heritage of the Seljuk state and on the foundation of the educational and scientific institutions that were established in the Anatolian cities in that period. Furthermore, Ottomans also benefited from the activities of scholars from the most advanced cultural and scientific centres of the period such as those in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Iran and Turkestan. Ottomans protected and enriched the cultural and scientific heritage of the Islamic world and brought to it a new dynamism and vitality. Thus, besides the early centres of Islamic civilization, new cultural and scientific centres emerged such as those in Bursa, Edirne, İstanbul, Skopje and Sarajevo. Ottoman culture and science that developed during this period constituted the cultural identity and scientific heritage of present-day Turkey and as well as many of the Middle Eastern, North African and Balkan countries.

The medreses (madrasas) were the most important institutions which formed the source of religious, cultural and scientific activities of the Ottomans and at the same time were organized to meet the needs of the state and society. [Please refer to the chapter in this book providing detailed information on the Ottoman madrasas.] Actually, the Ottoman educational system was in a position to meet its own needs in every respect. Besides the madrasas, there were also institutions providing education where various scientific subjects were taught such as mathematics, astronomy and medicine within a master-apprentice relationship. These institutions were housed in the mansions of scholars and distinguished individuals of the state and society who encouraged learning and science as well as in hospitals and muvakkithanes (timekeeping houses next to the mosques) where an active scientific and cultural environment was created.

Institutions called Şifâhane or bîmâristan (hospital) that provided health services were among the most popular places for the teaching and practice of medicine. The Seljuks built hospitals in large cities such as Konya, Kayseri and Sivas; similarly, the Ottomans built a great number of hospitals in the capital cities such as Bursa, Edirne and İstanbul. They placed great importance on the hospitals as a unit of the külliye (the complex of buildings attached to a mosque) to provide for their continuity, rather than as independent buildings. Fatih Hospital founded by Sultan Mehmed II (Fatih/the Conqueror) in 1470; Bayezid Hospital founded in Edirne in 1481 upon the order of Sultan Bayezid II; Sülemaniye Hospital established in 1550 by Süleyman I (the Magnificent) and Haseki Hospital (1550) founded by his wife Hürrem Sultan; and Hafsa Sultan Hospital (1522–1523) established in Manisa by the wife of Sultan Selim I are among these important structures. These hospitals, besides treating patients, had an important place in educating physicians and continued their activities until modern hospitals were opened around the middle of the nineteenth century.

Timekeeping houses are among other institutions related to science. They were built within the courtyards of some mosques in the cities and towns as a component of the külliyes and flourished especially after the conquest of İstanbul. They maintained their activities with the revenues of the charitable foundations of the külliye. The muvakkit (timekeeper) was responsible for determining prayer times. They used instruments such as the quadrant, astrolabe, sextant, octant, sundials and mechanical clocks with chronometers. The timekeeping houses, besides teaching the knowledge of timekeeping, have also been institutions where mathematics and astronomy were taught.

In addition to the institutions mentioned above which were supported by their own charitable foundations, there were two other state institutions. One was the office of the chief physician and the other was the office of the chief astronomer. The chief physician and chief astronomer were selected from among the ulema class of scholars who were well educated.

The chief physician provided health services for the sultan and his family and the members of the palace; they were also responsible for all the institutions related to health and for the doctors, pharmacists, surgeons and ophthalmologists in the Empire. A total of forty-two persons had been appointed to this position, some of them more than once, until the termination of the office of the chief physician in 1844.

The office of the chief astronomer was established towards the end of the fifteenth century. The chief astronomer’s most important duty was the preparation of calendars. Until the year 1800, calendars were based on Uluğ Bey’s astronomical tables and henceforth according to Cassini’s astronomical tables. Astronomers were responsible for determining the beginning of fasting times (imsakiye) before the month of Ramadan and preparing horoscopes (zayije) and astronomical tables (Zics). Astronomers and occasionally their assistants would be responsible for determining propitious times such as dates of accession to the throne and declaration of war and launching of ships, and for special occasions such as births, weddings and circumcisions. The astronomer would interpret horoscopes of the sultan and his family, and statesmen, and when his interpretations came true, gifts would be bestowed upon him. Astronomers would also follow important astronomical events such as comets, earthquakes, fires and eclipses of the sun and the moon and other extraordinary events and would submit their interpretations to the palace. They were also responsible for the management of timekeeping houses. The famous observatory founded in İstanbul during the reign of Murad III (1574–1595) was under the management of Chief Astronomer Takiyeddin el-Râsıd (d. 1585). A total of thirty-seven scholars undertook the position of chief astronomer up until the end of the Ottoman Empire. This institution was abolished in 1924 after the proclamation of the Republic and in its place the başmuvakkitlik (office of the chief timekeeper) was established in 1927.

In addition to the scientific activities that centered around the madrasas, other active and dynamic scholarly environments were developed around the previously mentioned institutions, such as the Süleymaniye Medical Madrasa, office of the chief physician and the chief astronomer, and timekeeping houses. Many works produced in the classical period were prepared within the milieu of these institutions.²

2 For general information see E. İhsanoğlu, “Ottoman Educational and Scholarly-Scientific Institutions,” 396; for the institution of the chief physician see Ali Haydar Bayat, Osmanlı Devleti’nde Hekimbaşıl›k Kurumu ve Hekimbaşılar (The Institution of Chief Physician in the Ottoman State and the Chief Physicians) (Ankara, 1999); for the institution of chief astronomer see Salim Aydüz, Osmanlı Devleti’nde Müneccimbaşılık ve Mü nec cim ba şı lar (The Institution of Chief Astrologer in the Ottoman State and the Chief Astrologers) (Master’s thesis, Istanbul University, Faculty of Literature, 1993); for hospitals see E. İhsanoğlu, “Ottoman Educational and Scholarly-Scientific Institutions”, 400; for Mu vak kit ha nes see Süheyl Ünver, “Osmanlı Türkleri İlim Tarihinde Muvakkithâneler” (Muvakkithanes in History of Science of the Ottoman Turks), pp. 217–257, Atatürk Konferanslan, V, offprint from 1971–1972 (Ankara, 1971).

Establishment of the İstanbul observatory

Takiyeddin el-Râsıd was born in Damascus and educated in Syria and Egypt. He came from Egypt to İstanbul in 1570 and was appointed as the chief astronomer by Sultan Selim II. Takiyeddin started the construction of an observatory in İstanbul by the order of Murad III, who had ascended the throne in 1574. The observatory was designed to provide for the needs of the astronomers and included a library and lodgings. This institution was conceived as one of the largest observatories in Islam and completed in 1579. It was comparable to Tycho Brahe’s Uranienborg observatory built in 1576. There is a striking similarity between the instruments of Tycho Brahe and those of Takiyeddin. In his astronomical tables, called Sidrâtü Muntehe’l Efkâr (The Lotus Tree of the Extremity of Thoughts), Takiyeddin states that he started activities on astronomy in İstanbul with fifteen assistants in 1573. The observatory continued to function until 22 January 1580, the date of its destruction.³

3 For observatory see Aydın Sayılı, The Observatory in Islâm and its Place in the General History of the Observatory, Ankara, 1960; İsmet Miroğlu, “Istanbul Rasathânesi’ne Ait Belgeler” (Documents related to the Istanbul observatory), Tarih Enstitüsü Dergisi 3 (October 1972): 75–82.

Takiyeddin, who developed a new method for the calculation of the solar parameters with his studies at the İstanbul Observatory, used the planet Venus and the two stars named Aldebaran and Spica Virginis for the determination of the longitudes and latitudes of fixed stars. He determined the ecliptic degree as 23º 28’ 40”, which is very close to the current value of 23º 27’. He used a new method in calculating solar parameters as well as determining the magnitude of the annual movement of the sun’s apogee as 63 seconds. Considering that today’s known value is 61 seconds, the method he used appears to have been more precise than that of Copernicus (24 seconds) and Tycho Brahe (45 seconds).

The Western world used chords for the measurement of angles beginning with Ptolemy in the second century AD up until Copernicus in the sixteenth century. Consequently, the calculation of a 1° chord was one of the important problems of ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• List of illustrations
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• Part 1 Ottoman science
• Part 2 Institutions of learning
• Part 3 Science and religion
• Bibliography
• Index