Emotion, Well-Being, and Resilience

Theoretical Perspectives and Practical Applications

Rabindra Kumar Pradhan, Updesh Kumar, Rabindra Kumar Pradhan, Updesh Kumar

• Publisher: Apple Academic Press
• Year: 2021
• ISBN:
  9781000094961
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Human Resource Management
• Index: Business

This important new volume discusses the role of emotion, resilience, and well-being in many contexts of human life, including home, school, and workplace. Leading researchers and academicians from around the world and from various fields—such as health, education, information and technology, military, and manufacturing—explore the theoretical and practical implications of many studies in this area. They present new concepts, models, and knowledge for practical applications that address challenges to well-being. The volume also considers the roles of several other influencing factors, such as emotional intelligence, performance, productivity, and employee's health and happiness.

The book's editors state that, "At this juncture of human and technological development, when artificial intelligence and automation are slowly taking over the world, holding on to the study of emotions, well-being, and resilience has become imperative, as these influence sustainable performances and growth by individuals as well as organizations."

PART I
Emotion, Well-Being, and Resilience in Clinical and Counseling Context

CHAPTER 1
Stress, Resilience, and Coping

RACHEL N. WARD^*, ABBIE J. BRADY, REBEKAH JAZDZEWSKI, and MATTHEW M. YALCH

Department of Clinical Psychology, Palo Alto University, Palo Alto, CA, USA

^*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Stress can have adverse effects on psychological functioning. This is evident by increases in symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and other psychiatric disorders in those who have experienced high levels of stress. However, there are several factors that make people more at risk or more resilient to developing psychological problems in the aftermath of experiencing high levels of stress. Similarly, there are several methods of coping that are more or less effective in the aftermath of stressful experiences. In this chapter, we will review the nature and impact of stress, risk and resilience factors, and different methods of coping with stress.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Psychological stress is the physical and/or psychological outcome of a perceived environmental demand on an individual (Cohen et al., 2007). The environmental demands that promote psychological stress (stressors) can come in a number of forms, ranging from chronic stressors such as chronic illness and community violence to time-limited high-severity stressors, such as natural disasters and terrorist attacks. An individual’s response to stressors can be mental and/or physical, depending on the individual’s psychological makeup, social and cultural resources, and the needs of the situation. In this chapter, we will discuss the nature of psychological stress, the types of factors that make an individual more or less resilient to psychological stress, and methods of coping that may be useful in dealing with psychological stress.

1.2 THE NATURE AND EFFECTS OF STRESSORS

1.2.1 THE NATURE OF STRESSORS

One factor that influences an individual’s response to stress is the nature of the stressor(s). Greater perceived severity of the stressor and longer duration of the stressor are associated with more problematic stress responses (Dyb et al., 2014; Gil, 2015; Sayed et al., 2015; Xue et al., 2015). Perceptions of stressor severity are subjective and can be quantified in a number of different ways. For example, research suggests that greater perceived stressfulness and greater interpersonal impact of stressors are associated with a worse stress response (Martin et al., 2013; Martinez-Torteya et al., 2009). Closer proximity to the stressor is also associated with worse responses (Gil, 2015; Silwal et al., 2018). This is especially evident in the case of vicarious traumas. For example, research suggests that witnessing injury or death first-hand is especially predictive of outcomes such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Cheng et al., 2014; Xue et al., 2015). Proximity can also be relational in nature. This is evident in studies suggesting that events such as the death of a family member or colleague as well as exposure to human remains has been found to increase the risk of PTSD in 9/11 first responders (Pietrzak et al., 2014).

Along these lines, stressors can be categorized into three general groups: negative events, chronic strains, and traumatic stressors (Thoits, 2010). Negative events are single aversive demands on a person’s life. Meanwhile, chronic strains are characterized by demands that are persistent or repeated. Traumatic stressors occur in situations in which the individual believes that there is a threat to their life, bodily integrity, or sanity (Thoits, 2010). All three types of stressors prompt physiological and psychological responses that impact physical and psychological health.

1.2.2 PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF STRESS

Psychological stress cues activation of the fight-or-flight system of the body. This involves the body’s production of adrenaline and subsequent release of glucocorticoid hormones such as cortisol, which in turn initiates more overt signals of physiological arousal such as the increased heart rate (McEwen, 1998). Not all stressors result in full activation of the fight-or-flight response (Taylor, 2010). However, an overload of numerous stressors of varied severity may lead to allostasis, the breakdown of physiological processes from the overproduction of cortisol, creating negative effects for brain, immune system, and cardiovascular functioning (McEwen, 1998).

There is a broad literature suggesting an association between psychological stress and physical health problems (for a theoretical review, see van der Kolk, 2014). The increased levels of stress are associated with higher blood pressure (Taylor, 2010), increased likelihood of chronic medical conditions such as cardiovascular, pulmonary, and metabolic diseases (Agorastos et al., 2014; Finch et al., 2001), decreased immune system (Segerstrom & Miller, 2004) and neurological functioning (Qin et al., 2009), and poorer perceived health more generally (Agorastos et al., 2014; Finch et al., 2001). Risks of these adverse health outcomes become more likely as the probability of allostasis increases (Ehlert, 2013). Research further suggests that the pernicious effects of stress may affect health more adversely than tobacco use and excessive drinking (Toussaint et al., 2016).

1.2.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF STRESS

Stress also has an impact on psychological health. Higher levels of stress are associated with poorer perceived mental health, as well as increased likelihood of a number of psychiatric disorders (Folkman et al., 1986; Langner & Michael, 1963). With respect to these disorders, the two syndromes most closely associated with stress are PTSD and depression (Campbell et al., 2008; Colodro-Conde et al., 2017).

The PTSD is by definition a disorder that develops following exposure to a severe (traumatic) stressor (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Research suggests that greater duration and chronicity of exposure to the stressor(s), as well as whether the stressor is man-made (e.g., a trauma perpetrated by a person vs. a natural disaster), are associated with more severe and complex PTSD symptoms (e.g., Kira et al., 2008; for theoretical review, see Herman, 1992). Greater severity of PTSD symptoms is also associated with increases in somatic (e.g., chronic pain), externalizing (e.g., substance use), and internalizing (e.g., anxious, depressive) symptoms (Campbell et al., 2008; Miller et al., 2008).

For its part, depression is a syndrome with a high genetic component (Kendler et al., 2010). However, research suggests that stressful events interact with the genetic vulnerability for depression to produce an increased likelihood of developing depressive symptoms (Colodro-Conde et al., 2017; Kendler et al., 2010). As with PTSD, certain kinds of stressors are particularly associated with depression. Research suggests that single high-intensity stressors, interpersonal stressors, and stressors that have the potential to alter a person’s identity, such as a loss of a job or a loved one, are especially likely to lead to depressive symptoms (Brown & Harris, 1986; Soria-Saucedo et al., 2018). Other research suggests that lifetime exposure to stress in general and exposure to childhood trauma in particular are associated with depression (Hammen, 2005).

1.3 RESILIENCE TO STRESS

Not everyone develops physical or psychological problems in the aftermath of stressful experiences, even when the stressors are severe. The degree to which a person can respond adaptively to stressful experiences is referred to as resilience (Southwick et al., 2014). Resilience is an umbrella term encompassing a number of overlapping facets, including social, psychological, and cultural factors (Hobfoll, 1989; Southwick et al., 2014).

1.3.1 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF RESILIENCE

The support a person receives from his or her social network has a strong influence on that person’s ability to respond adaptively to stress, with higher levels of social support leading to reduced psychological problems in the aftermath of stressors. A number of studies suggest that social support is negatively associated with symptoms of PTSD in veterans, first responders to the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and survivors of natural and man-made disasters (e.g., Cheng et al., 2014; Dyb et al., 2014; Galea et al., 2008; Pietrzak et al., 2014; Sayed et al., 2015). This may be particularly the case for financial support. Research suggests that a lack of financial support is associated with greater severity of PTSD symptoms following natural disasters (Cheng et al., 2014; Galea et al., 2008).

Findings appear to be similar with respect to the association between social support and depression. Several studies of parenting-related stress reported by mothers indicate that social support is negatively associated with depressive symptoms (Aneshensel & Frerichs, 1982; Cairney et al., 2003). Research further suggests that emotional support is particularly linked to lower levels of depression in expecting mothers (Jones et al., 2005). Thus, the role of social support appears to be beneficial regardless of the stressor, although the speci...