Ethnopharmacology of Wild Plants

Mahendra Rai, Shandesh Bhattarai, Chistiane M. Feitosa, Mahendra Rai, Shandesh Bhattarai, Chistiane M. Feitosa

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2021
• eBook ISBN:
  9781000331004
• Topic: Medicine
• Subtopic: Alternative & Complementary Medicine

The book provides valuable information on wild plants and their ethnopharmacological properties, discussion on ethnobotany, phytotherapy, diversity, chemical and pharmacological properties including antifungal, anti-inflammatory and antiprotozal properties. The chapters include a wide range of case studies, giving updated evidence on importance of wild plant resources from different countries including Nepal, India, Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Colombia, Egypt, Peru, etc. In addition, some specific species are used to explain their potential properties. Discussing traditional usage and pharmacological properties of wild plants, this book is entirely different from other related publications and useful for the researchers working in the areas of conservation biology, botany, ethnobiology, ethnopharmacology, policy making, etc.

Section II
Ethnobotany and Phytotherapy

Chapter 10
Distribution and Use (Ethnobotany and Trade) of Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. in Nepal

Ripu M. Kunwar

Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal, Kathmandu.
Email: [email protected]

Introduction

The modern facilities of health care are not easily accessible, particularly in the rural areas of Nepal, resulting in heavy reliance of the rural populace on traditional medicines (TM) for primary health care. According to the World Health Organization, over a two-third percentage of the population in developing countries depend on TM for their primary health care (WHO 2002). Because of the high dependency of people on TM, its importance is frequently being hailed (Goleniowski et al. 2006). Its increasing application is also due to its low side effects, low cost, high effectiveness, easy availability of nearby human settlements and application of local resources (Kunwar et al. 2013). There is increasing convergence between TM and modern medicine because both have benefited greatly from natural products (Newman et al. 2003). Since prehistoric times, humans have used natural products, such as plants, animals, microorganisms, and marine organisms, in medicines to alleviate human ailments and diseases. According to fossil records, the human use of plants as medicine may be traced back at least 60,000 years (Fabricant and Farnsworth 2001). Sustainable harvesting is necessary for any medicinal plant but it is generally observed that the high-value medicinal plants such as Bergenia ciliata, Paris polyphylla, Nardostachys grandiflora, etc. are overexploited and prematurely harvested (Kunwar et al. 2016, Biswas et al. 2017) because of the accelerated market demand (Pyakurel et al. 2017). Bergenia ciliata is one of the high valued medicinal plants of Nepal, widely overexploited for marketing purposes (Olsen 2005).

Bergenia ciliata belongs to the family Saxifragaceae which consists of 30 genera and 580 species. It is one of the six species of genus Bergenia. There are two species of Bergenia in Nepal that are B. ciliata and B. purpurascens. B. ciliata is distributed in the cold and temperate Himalayas and Central and Eastern Asia between 900 m to 3,600 m (Anon 1970–1988, Kumar and Tyagi 2013) (Figure 10.1). It is an evergreen perennial herb found in hilly areas of Nepal, India, Pakistan, Bhutan, etc. (Venkatadri et al. 2010). It has a long history of use in the Himalayas for curing pulmonary infections, leucorrhea, piles and for dissolving bladder and kidney-stones (Asolkar et al. 2010). In the Ayurveda system of medicine, it is commonly used as tonic, astringent, antiscorbutic, and laxative, and for spleen enlargement, dysuria, and ulcers (Misra 1993, Bagul et al. 2003).

Figure 10.1. (a) Flowers of Bergenia ciliata (@ www.iprsindh.com.pk), (b) Bergenia ciliata plant (@ Ripu Kunwar).

Approach and Methods

There are many studies dealing with the different aspects of Bergenia ciliata in Nepal but none is accountable for a comprehensive review of taxonomy, distribution and use of Bergenia ciliata. India and Pakistan are the countries leading the research on the pharmacology of Bergenia (Ahmad et al. 2018). The present review is the first attempt to gather the fragmented information about the taxonomy, distribution, and use (ethnobotany, ethnomedicine and trade) of B. ciliata in Nepal. This review also uncovers the gaps in current knowledge that help develop a better guide for sustainable management of B. ciliata. Over 100 articles available on Pubmed, Google Scholar and Nepjol, and published books until December 2019 were reviewed for this communication.

Synonyms and Vernacular Names of Bergenia ciliata

Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. has three synonyms that are Megasea ciliata Haw., Saxifraga ciliata Royle, and S. pacumbis Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don (Akiyama et al. 2012). As Bergenia ciliata is one of the popular medicinal plants, it has been given various local names on the basis of local language spoken in different regions. Some of the local names of this plant are illustrated in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1 Local names of Bergenia ciliata.

Language	Names
Amchi	Khadhur
Arabian	Junteyenah
Assamese	Patharkuchi
Baitadeli, Doteli	Vedaite, Silphode, Dhungeful
Bengali	Patharchuri
Chinese	Honhitao
Danuwar	Simtadi
English	Rock-foil, Hairy bergenia
German	Steinbrech
Gurung	Padambet, Pakhanved
Gujarati	Pashanbheda
Hindi	Pakhenbhed
Japanese	Yukinoshita
Kannada	Alepgaya, Pahanbhedi, Hittaga, Pasanaberu, Hittulaka
Kashmir	Pashanbhed
Marathi	Pashanbheda
Kham	Gatik mukpo
Kumaoni	Patharchud
Magar	Hangpaat
Malayalam	Kallurvanchi, Kallurvanni, Kallorvanchi
Nepalese	Dhungri kojara, Pakhanbedha, Pashanbhed, Silparo, Silpu, Simpate, Silphode
Oriya	Pasanbhedi, Pashanbheda
Pakistan	Zakham-e-hayat, Bhat-pay
Persian	Gashah
Punjabi	Kachalu, Pashanbhed
Rai	Ghayabatam
Sanskrit	Ashamabhed, Aswamahan, Nagamit, Pasanved, Pashana veda, Samwata, Silaved, Upalbhedi
Sherpa	Chyucha, Chyurpu
Sinhalese	Pahanbeya
Tamil	Sirupilai
Tamang	Bregyal
Tibetan	A-ama-bhe-da
Tharu	Chihuli
Telugu	Kondapindi
Unani	Mukha
Urdu	Zahkm-e-hayat

Taxonomy

Bergenia ciliata is an evergreen perennial herb of 5–25 cm height with suborbicular to broadly obovate leaves, which are rounded at the apex and cordate at base. Leaf margins are finely denticulate, fringed with soft hairs. Leaves are alternate, opposite and ex-stipulate. Flowering stems are green to reddish, thick, and sparsely glandular (Chauhan et al. 2012). Flowers 1–20 are showy pinkish-white with ovate petals, lobes acute and denticular near apex, hermaphrodite, calyx oblong 5 adnate to the ovary (more or less) apex rounded, margin denticulate or ciliate; corolla pink, 4 or 5, perigynous and imbricate, stamens indefinite, ovary 4 or 5 and united, fruit capsular or sometimes baccate, seeds numerous, blooms in spring from February to April and fruiting from March to July (Grierson and Long 1987). Seeds 1.5–2 mm (Akiyama et al. 2012).

Distribution

In Nepal, the genus Bergenia is distributed from east to west within the altitudinal range of 900 m to 4700 m (Press et al. 2000, Ghimire et al. 2008, DPR 2017). The density of Bergenia ciliata is found highest in undisturbed forest, intermediate under restored forest and the lowest under disturbed forest, which indicates forest disturbance may lead to the extinction of this species (Adnan et al. 2014). Detailed distribution and population study of B. ciliata in Nepal are yet to be carried out. One study revealed that it is distributed in 16 districts (Kunwar et al. 2011; Figure 10.2).

Figure 10.2. Distribution of B. ciliata in Nepal (Source: www.eson.org.np).

According to the International Plant Names Index (www.ipni.org), there are 33 species in the genus Bergenia Moench (Family: Saxifragaceae) throughout the world, while Tropicos (www.tropicos.org) lists 22 species of Bergenia (Table 10.2). Plants of the World Online (www.powo.science.kew.org) illustrates 17 species of Bergenia (Table 10.2). Wu and Raven (2001) reported seven species of Bergenia—B. scopulosa, B. crassifolia, B. purpurascens, B. emeiensis, B. pacumbis, B. tianquanensis and B. stracheyi— in Flora of China. Press et al. (2000) reported three species of Bergenia in Nepal (Table 10.2). Later on, Akiyama et al. (2012) reported only two species, Bergenia purpurascens and Bergenia ciliata, in Nepal.

Table 10.2 Illustration of Bergenia ciliata in different databases.

SN	Name	Illustrations
1	Bergenia beesiana hort. ex C.Schneider	ipni
2	Bergenia biflora Moench	ipni	Tropicos
3	Bergenia bifolia Moench		Tropicos
4	Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.	ipni	Tropicos	powo	Press et al. (2000)	FoN
5	Bergenia cordifolia (Haw.) Sternb.	ipni	Tropicos
6	Bergenia coreana Nakai	ipni	Tropicos
7	Bergenia crassifolia (L.) Fritsch	ipni	Tropicos	powo
8	Bergenia delavayi (Franch.) Engl.	ipni	Tropicos
9	Bergenia emeiensis C.Y.Wu ex J.T.Pan	ipni	Tropicos	powo
10	Bergenia fortunei Stein	ipni		powo
11	Bergenia gorbunovii B.Fedtsch.	ipni
12	Bergenia gorbunowii B.Fedtsch.	ipni	Tropicos
13	Bergenia himalaica Boriss.	ipni	Tropicos
14	Bergenia hissarica Boriss.	ipni	Tropicos	powo
15	Bergenia ligulata (Wall.) Engl.	ipni	Tropicos
16	Bergenia media Engl.	ipni	Tropicos
17	Bergenia milesii Stein	ipni	Tropicos
18	Bergenia × newryensis Yeo	ipni
19	Bergenia orbicularis Stein	ipni		powo
20	Bergenia ornata Stein	ipni
21	Bergenia pacifica Kom.	ipni	Tropicos
22	Bergenia pacumbis (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) C.Y.Wu & J.T.Pan	ipni	Tropicos	powo
23	Bergeniapurpurascens (Hook.f. & Thom.) Engl.	ipni	Tropicos	powo	Press et al. (2000)	FoN
24	Bergenia schmidtii (Regel) Silva Tar.	ipni
25	Bergenia scopulosa T.P.Wang	ipni	Tropicos	powo
26	Bergenia siphilitica Raf.	ipni		powo
27	Bergenia smithii Engl.	ipni
28	Bergenia spathulata Nagels ex Guillaumin	ipni
29	Bergenia stracheyi (Hook.f. & Thom.) Engl.	ipni	Tropicos	powo	Press et al. (2000)
30	Bergenia thysanodes (Lindl.) C.Schneider	ipni	Tropicos
31	Bergenia tianquanensis J.T.Pan	ipni	Tropicos	powo
32	Bergenia ugamica V.N.Pavlov	ipni	Tropicos	powo
33	Bergenia yunnanensis hort.	ipni
34	Bergenia × media (Haw.) Engl.			powo
35	Bergenia × schmidtii (Regel) Silva Tar.	ipni		powo
36	Bergenia × smithii (Engl.)			powo
37	Bergenia × spathulata Nagels ex Guillumin			powo

(ipni = International Plant Names Index, powo = Plants of World Online, FoN = Flora of Nepal).

Ethnobotanical and medicinal uses

In Ayurveda, the Bergenia ciliata is considered as an astringent, diuretic and used in piles, abdominal mass, urinary calculi, heart disease, urinary problem and woun...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Foreword
• Preface
• Contents
• Section I: Ethnopharmacology
• Section II: Ethnobotany and Phytotherapy
• Index
• About the Editors