The Holy Spirit

A Guide to Christian Theology

Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen

• Publisher: Westminster John Knox Press
• Year: 2012
• Print ISBN: 9780664235932
• eBook ISBN: 9781611642506
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Christian Theology

This volume in the Basic Guides to Christian Theology series presents a compact discussion of the Holy Spirit in Christian theology. Written by a leading expert on this doctrine, it begins with biblical perspectives on the Holy Spirit, and moves on to describe how the Spirit was understood through the major periods in the history of Christian thought, from the early church to the present. It is global in approach and considers contributions from theologians throughout the world. This brief volume provides an excellent overview of how the Holy Spirit has been and is currently understood in Christian theology.

Chapter 1

Biblical Perspectives on the Spirit

The Bible presents the work of the Holy Spirit through symbols, images, metaphors, testimonies, and stories,¹ all of which appeal to the imagination as much as to rational discourse. The basic biblical terms ruach, in the Old Testament, and pneuma, in the New Testament carry similar ambiguity: “breath,” “air,” and “wind.” Other metaphors used for the Spirit are fire, dove, and Paraclete. When doing pneumatology, or the doctrine of the Spirit, one should proceed cautiously and “softly” in order not to oversystematize or imprison the Spirit that “‘blows where it chooses’” (John 3:8).

OLD TESTAMENT TESTIMONIES

The Old Testament² contains about one hundred references to the Spirit of God (Gen. 1:2: “a wind from God”; Isa. 11:2: “the spirit of the LORD … wisdom … counsel … knowledge”). From the beginning of the biblical narrative, the Spirit’s role in creation as the principle of life comes to the fore. The same Spirit of God that participated in creation over the chaotic primal waters (Gen. 1:2) is the principle of human life as well (Gen. 2:7). This very same divine energy also sustains all life in the cosmos:

When you [Yahweh] send forth your Spirit [ruach], they are created; and you renew the face of the ground.

(Ps. 104:30)

Similarly,

when [Yahweh] take[s] away their breath [ruach], they die and return to their dust.

(Ps. 104:29)

The charismatic, empowering function of the divine ruach over the leaders of the people of Israel is narrated in historical books (Judg. 14:6; 1 Sam. 16:13). Part of the empowerment is bringing about specific capacities, such as those of the craftsman’s skill (Exod. 31:3), the prophet’s vision (Ezek. 3:12; 8:3; 11:1), or extraordinary wisdom (Dan. 6:3).

The prophetic books make the all-important link between the promised messiah and the Spirit. The messiah is the receiver of the Spirit and the Spirit’s power (Isa. 11:1–8; 42:1–4; 49:1–6). The divine Spirit is given for the healing and restoration of the messianic people (Ezek. 18:31; Joel 2:28–32).

In the Wisdom literature, wisdom can be correlated or identified with the Word/Logos or with the Spirit (Prov. 8:22–31). This close connection between wisdom and the Spirit led early Christian theology—as will be noticed in the historical section—to sometimes confuse the roles of the Son and Spirit.

THE SPIRIT IN THE NEW TESTAMENT

The Synoptic Gospels of the New Testament³ offer an authentic, thick Spirit-Christology.⁴ Jesus’ birth (Matt. 1:18–25; Luke 1:35), baptism (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22; John 1:33), testing in the wilderness (Matt. 4:1; Mark 1:12; Luke 4:1), and ministry with healings, exorcisms, and other miracles (Matt. 12:28; Luke 4:18; 11:20) are functions of the Spirit. Indicative of the eschatological ministry of the Spirit is Jesus’ role as the baptizer in the Spirit (Matt. 3:11; Mark 13:11).

The transforming power of the Spirit is evident in the life of the early church. On the day of Pentecost, a powerful outpouring of the Spirit signaled the birth of the church (Acts 2:1–3) in fulfillment of the prophecy of Joel (2:28–29). The communities of the book of Acts received the Spirit with visible signs (4:31; 8:15–19; 10:44–47; 19:6), indeed, those signs were taken as the evidence of the work of God (8:12–25; 10:44–48; 19:1–7). Often at pivotal moments in the life of an individual or the church, the Holy Spirit was looked on as the source of an extraordinary power (9:17; 11:15–18; etc.). The Spirit empowered and directed the early church in her mission (8:29, 39; 10:19), often with the help of a special authority given to the leadership of the community (4:31; 5:1–10; 6:10; etc.).

Similarly to the Gospels, Paul⁵ has a robust Spirit-Christology. Jesus was raised to new life by the Spirit (Rom. 1:4). The Spirit is the Spirit of Christ (Rom. 8:9; Gal. 4:6; Phil. 1:19). Therefore, it is only through the Spirit that the believer is able to confess that “Jesus is Lord” (1 Cor. 12:1–3); similarly, the Abba prayer of the children of God is the work of the Spirit (Rom. 8:15). To be “in Christ” and “in the Spirit” are virtually synonymous; therefore, the Spirit cannot be experienced apart from Christ (1 Cor. 12:3). At times the integral connection between the Spirit and Christ is so close that Paul speaks of Christ as “a life-giving Spirit” (1 Cor. 15:45). Along with the salvific functions, important for Paul is the charismatic endowment and gifting (1 Cor. 1:4–7; Gal. 3:5). Similarly, the Spirit works to give illumination and divine revelation in the face of affliction (1 Thess. 1:6; 1 Cor. 2:10–12; 2 Cor. 3:14–17). The eschatological orientation comes to the fore in that the new age has already broken into the old. The Spirit can be compared to an arrabon, a down payment of the coming glory (2 Cor. 1:22; 5:5; Eph. 1:13–14), or to the first installment of the believer’s inheritance in the kingdom of God (Rom. 8:15–17; 14:17; 1 Cor. 6:9–11; 15:42–50; Gal. 4:6–7). In addition to charismatic, prophetic, and eschatological dimensions, a moral transformation is also part of the Pauline communities’ experience of the Spirit (1 Cor. 6:9–11). There is a constant struggle between “Spirit” and “flesh” (Rom. 8:1–17; Gal. 5:16–26). Therefore, the believer has a responsibility to live her life in the power of the Spirit, “walking in the Spirit,” being led by the Spirit (Rom. 8:4–6, 14; Gal. 5:16, 18, 25). To the extent that one advances, the fruit of the Spirit will become evident (Gal. 5:22–23).

The pneumatology of the Johannine literature is highly distinctive. That tradition makes use of the Old Testament’s rich imagery related to the Spirit’s life-giving power of water and breath: rebirth (John 3:5–8), spring of life (John 4:14; 6:63; 7:38–39), and new creation (John 20:22; cf. Gen. 2:7; Ezek. 37:9). The Johannine Epistles speak of anointing (1 John 2:20, 27), which is also a familiar Old Testament metaphor. The Johannine Jesus has been given the Spirit “without measure” (John 3:34). John also ties Jesus’ gift of the Spirit more closely to Jesus’ death (6:51–58, 62–63; 19:34). Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Johannine pneumatology is the naming of the Spirit as the “other Advocate [Paraclete]” (14:16), obviously implying that Jesus is the first (1 John 2:1). The term parakletos (from para+kalein) means “one called alongside to help,” thus an advocate or defense attorney (John 14:26). In the book of Revelation, the Spirit plays a crucial role in inspiration and vision (1:10; 4:2; 14:13; 17:3; 19:10; 21:10; 22:17). The Apocalypse mentions “seven spirits” (1:4; 4:5) or the spirits of Jesus (3:1; 5:6), phrases typical of apocalyptic literature.

The Pastoral Letters seem quite shy about the manifested Spirit’s ministry in the church. The Spirit’s ministry is linked with gifting to the ministry and to inspiration of Scripture (2 Tim. 3:16; 1:7). Titus 3:5 connects the Holy Spirit with regeneration. While the book of Hebrews obviously knows about the charismatic life in the church (2:4), inspiration of Scripture (3:7; 9:8; 10:15) is a main theme. Significantly, the book also connects the Spirit with Christ’s self-offering on the cross (9:14). The letters of Peter similarly connect the Spirit with inspiration (1 Pet. 1:11; 2 Pet. 1:21). First Peter (4:14) also makes the important connection between the Spirit and our suffering as Christians.

The New Testament also speaks of spirits vis-à-vis the Spirit of God. There is a battle between the kingdom of God and evil spirits (Mark 3:23–27 par.). Since there are both good spirits and bad, the church and individual Christians need to be able to discern the spirits (1 Cor. 12:10; 14:12; 2 Cor. 11:4).

THEOLOGICAL REFLECTIONS

What are some of the theological implications of the diverse biblical testimonies and experiences of the Holy Spirit? The first is the need to acknowledge and celebrate the diversity and plurality. While there is no denying some common themes, such as the Spirit’s role in creation, inspiration, salvation, and empowerment and in relation to Christ, there is no attempt among the biblical writers to reduce the sphere or the ministry of the Spirit. The work of the Spirit has a gentle and subtle facet as well as the rushing-wind or stormy side. There is the silent, hidden side as well as the audible, visible, and tangible aspect; a salvific, soteriological ministry as well as gifting and empowering energies; and so forth.

Many find it highly interesting theologically that in the last part of the New Testament, the so-called Catholic Epistles, there is a shift from the charismatic and dynamic ministry and role of the Spirit to more “institutionalized” forms, such as the inspiration of Scripture and gifting to the ministry (“ordination”). Such a shift happened soon after the first centuries when church structures, established ministries such as the episcopacy, and the Christian canon were formed.

This development is intriguing in light of the later developments of pneumatology and church life. According to the New Testament scholar James D. G. Dunn, two ecclesiological “streams” have flowed alongside each other in the postbiblical era: one was charismatic and enthusiastic; the other, more conventional and traditional. The former might have been the “mainstream” during the first postbiblical century while the latter, the more established one, soon took the upper hand.⁶ The Roman Catholic pneumatologist Yves Congar has argued that indeed in the beginning the church saw itself subject to the activity of the Spirit and filled with his gifts. As an example he mentions Clement of Rome, who said that the apostles “set out, filled with the assurance of the Holy Spirit, to proclaim the good news of the coming of the kingdom of heaven.” Toward the end of the first century, Clement was also obliged to give rules for the church at Corinth as to the right use of charisms, implying that spiritual gifts were active at that time. Congar mentions Justin Martyr as an example: this late second-century Apologist claimed that prophecy and charismatic gifts still existed; in fact, it was believed that the charisms should accompany the church until the end.⁷ Furthermore, according to Congar, there was no opposition yet between the growth of tradition (doctrinal development) and charisms, such as visions and warnings from the Spirit. Cyprian said of the Council of Carthage (252) that it had made decisions “under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit and according to the warnings given by the Lord in many visions.” Cyprian himself (d. 258) is claimed to have had various kinds of visions from the Spirit.⁸

In sum, both in the biblical canon and in the ensuing early centuries, diversity and plurality were hallmarks of the experiences of the Spirit as well as doctrinal formulations. To these historical developments we turn next.

Chapter 2

Developing Pneumatological Doctrine in the Patristic Era

THE EARLIEST PNEUMATOLOGIES BEFORE NICEA

The Slow Growth of the Doctrine

The Spirit was first experienced in Christian life and community and only in the second movement reflected on in terms of theological categories: “Long before the Spirit was a theme of doctrine, He was a fact in the experience of the community.”¹ The development of the doctrine of the Holy Spirit took place slowly as christological and Trinitarian debates stood at the forefront. Even the question of the divinity of the Spirit alongside the Father and Son, let alone the Spirit’s place in the Trinity, took several centuries to be clarified. There was a “practical” need behind the doctrinal clarifications: the fact that the Spirit was being mentioned alongside the Father and Son in doxologies, prayers, and baptismal liturgies and that Christ’s salvific benefits were believed to be conveyed to men and women by the Spirit seemed to require the full divine status of the third member of the Trinity. This belief is the essence of the ancient rule lex orandi lex credendi (the law of prayer [is or becomes] the law of believing).²

One of the reasons for the slow development of the doctrine also had to do with the nature of progressive revelation. This was the argument of Gregory of Nazianzus (or Nazianzen), one of the Cappadocian fathers, who were the greatest defenders and drafters of orthodox pneumatology:

The Old Testament proclaimed the Father openly, and the Son more obscurely. The New manifested the Son, and suggested the Deity of the Spirit. Now the Spirit Himself dwells among us, and supplies us with a clearer demonstration of Himself. For it was not safe, when the Godhead of the Father was not yet acknowledged, plainly to proclaim the Son; nor when that of the Son was not yet received to burden us further (if I may use so bold an expression) with the Holy Ghost; lest perhaps people might, like men loaded with food beyond their strength, and presenting eyes as yet too weak to bear it to the sun’s light, risk the loss even of that which was within the reach of their powers; but that by gradual additions, and, as David says, Goings up, and advances and progress from glory to glory, the Light of the Trinity might shine upon the more illuminated. For this reason it was, I think, that He gradually came to dwell in the Disciples, measuring Himself out to them according to their capacity to receive Him, at the beginning of the Gospel, after the Passion, after the Ascension, making perfect their powers, being breathed upon them, and appearing in fiery tongues. And indeed it is by little and little that He is d...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half-title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Preface
• List of Abbreviations
• Introduction: Holy Spirit in Christian Theology and Spirituality
• 1. Biblical Perspectives on the Spirit
• 2. Developing Pneumatological Doctrine in the Patristic Era
• 3. Experiences of the Spirit in Medieval Theologies and Spiritualities
• 4. The Holy Spirit in Reformation Theologies
• 5. Post-Reformation and Modern Pneumatologies
• 6. The Spirit in Twentieth-Century Interpretations
• Postscript: What Is New and Novel in Contemporary Pneumatologies?
• Notes
• For Further Reading
• Index