A History of Early Christian Literature

Justo L. González

• Publisher: Westminster John Knox Press
• Year: 2019
• ISBN:
  9781611649543
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: History of Christianity

Historical events have long been the standard lens through which scholars have sought to understand the theology of Christianity in late antiquity. The lives of significant theological figures, the rejection of individuals and movements as heretical, and the Trinitarian and christological controversiesthe defining theological events of the early churchhave long provided the framework with which to understand the development of early Christian belief. In this groundbreaking work, esteemed historian of Christianity Justo González chooses to focus on the literature of early Christianity. Beginning with the epistolary writings of the earliest Christian writers of the second century CE, he moves through apologies, martyrologies, antiheretical polemics, biblical commentaries, sermons, all the way up through Augustines invention of spiritual autobiography and beyond. Throughout he demonstrates how literary genre played a decisive role in the construction of theological meaning. Covering the earliest noncanonical Christian writings through the fifth century and later, this book will serve as an indispensable guide to students studying the theology of the early church.

PART 1

The Earliest Christian Literature
outside the New Testament

Introduction to Part 1

It is interesting to note that, while Christians in general are fairly well acquainted with the books of the New Testament, other early Christian literature, some of it dating from the same time as the last books of the New Testament, is generally unknown. Yet that frequently ignored literature helps us understand the environment in which the New Testament was formed. It was a time when the church itself was taking shape, when it was not clear what was acceptable Christian teaching and what was not. A persecution whose legal and official parameters were not yet established was a constant threat. There were divisions and differences of opinion, at least as widespread as we find in the New Testament itself. There was no clear church organization, and many would-be leaders profited from such circumstances. Some were seeking to discover words and teachings of Jesus that had not been included in what became the four canonical Gospels. Among those four, the difference within the three of them and the fourth led some to doubt the authority of the latter. Those who did not agree with the teachings of those Gospels simply wrote their own. Some wrote about the supposed acts of a particular apostle in order to put forth their own ideas, which frequently differed from those of the rest of the church. Martyrs were highly esteemed, and the acts of their trials and sufferings circulated widely. In response to persecution, several books defending the faith, commonly known as “apologies,” began to appear. These sought to show, on the one hand, that persecution itself was unjust; and on the other hand, that the teachings of Christianity were true. In brief, the result was a vast and multiform body of literature of which significant portions have come to our day.

Still, even though this is a vast body of literature with abundant information about the life and faith of that nascent church, there is not a single writing among all of these books that seeks to systematize or to expound the totality of Christian faith. Even joining all the information that can be gleaned from this literature, it does not give us a total vision of Christian faith and practice in those early times. What we do have, rather than systematic treatises, are letters, practical and administrative advice, homiletic materials, defenses of the faith in the face of criticism and persecution, stories of martyrs, and a motley collection of apocryphal or pseudonymous literature.

1

The Apostolic Fathers

A vast body of early Christian literature is jointly known as the “Apostolic Fathers.” This name, employed for the first time in the seventeenth century and in general usage today, may be confusing. Although the “Apostolic Fathers” are eight, some among them are individuals whose writings have come to us, while others are anonymous or pseudonymous documents. This is also a varied body of literature, for it includes, besides a number of letters, a manual of discipline, a pseudonymous homily presented as a letter, a series of visions and allegories, a collection of purported words of the Lord, and an apology. (Since the latter, the Address to Diognetus, should actually be counted among the Greek apologists, it will be discussed in a chapter devoted to the early apologists.)

THE DIDACHE

Quite likely the most ancient of these documents is the one that bears the title of Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, commonly known as the Didache (a Greek word meaning “teaching”).

This document was amply circulated in the ancient church, for it seems that even some of the other Apostolic Fathers knew and made use of it. Likewise, other ancient Christian writers quoted it. Through these other writers, it influenced some medieval literature. But eventually the book itself was forgotten, and modernity did not know it until the end of the nineteenth century. Later, following various clues, scholars have found versions or portions of this work in Coptic, Syriac, Georgian, Latin, and Arabic, which witnesses to the widespread use of this book in ancient times.

As to the date and place of its composition, there is no absolute certainty. The fact that it is quoted quite early is proof of its antiquity. Also, on the basis of the text itself and the environment it reflects, it would seem that the Didache originated in Syria or nearby. Quite likely it was already in existence by the year 70 or 80, although some scholars date it much later. Its style is clear and simple, rapidly getting to the point without ornament or circumlocution.

The book is divided into two parts. The first six chapters, frequently called the “Document of Two Ways,” employs the very ancient metaphor of two ways: one the way of the good, or life; the other the way of evil, or death—a metaphor that appears not only in ancient Greek literature, but also in Scripture, both in the Gospels (Matt. 7:13–15) and in the Old Testament (Jer. 21:8). The second and most interesting part, chapters 7 to 16, includes valuable data and instructions regarding the worship and government of the church.

The Document of the Two Ways opens with the first and great commandment of loving God, joined with love for neighbor. From there it moves to a series of prohibitions in which one perceives echoes of the Decalogue. But in any case, the central emphasis of this first part of the book is on the obligation to share with the needy. Thus we read:

Give to everyone that asketh thee, and ask it not back; for the Father willeth that to all should be given of our own blessings. Happy is he that giveth according to the commandment; for he is guiltless. Woe to him that receiveth; for if one having need receiveth, he is guiltless; but he that receiveth not having need, shall pay the penalty, why he received and for what, and, coming into straits, he shall be examined concerning the things which he hath done, and he shall not escape thence until he pay back the last farthing. But also now concerning this, it hath been said, let thine alms sweat in thy hands, until thou know to whom thou shouldst give. . . . Thou shalt not turn away from him that is in want, but thou shalt share all things with thy brother, and shalt not say that they are thine own; for if ye are partakers in that which is immortal, how much more in things which are mortal? (Didache 1.5–6; 4.8; ANF 7:377, 378)

The second part of the Didache begins in chapter 7 with interesting instructions about baptism:

And concerning baptism, thus baptize ye: having first said all these things, baptize into the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, in living water. But if thou have not living water, baptize in other water; and if thou canst not in cold, in warm. But if thou have not either, pour out water thrice upon the head in the name of Father and Son and Holy Spirit. (Didache 7.1–3; ANF 7:379)

Also regarding communion, the Didache offers a glimpse into some of the earliest Christian practices. A meal is to take place each week on the “day of the Lord,” and participants will eat until they are satisfied—which is an indication of the early date of the Didache. Here we find also the oldest eucharistic prayer that we have:

Now concerning the Thanksgiving, thus give thanks. First, concerning the cup: We thank thee, our Father, for the holy vine of David Thy servant, which Thou madest known to us through Jesus Thy Servant; to Thee be the glory for ever. And concerning the broken bread: We thank Thee, our Father, for the life and knowledge which Thou madest known to us through Jesus Thy servant; to Thee be the glory for ever. Even as this broken bread was scattered over the hills, and was gathered together and became one, so let Thy Church be gathered together from the ends of the earth into Thy Kingdom; for Thine is the glory and the power through Jesus Christ for ever. (Didache 9.1–4; ANF 7:379–80)

After other prayers to be raised following partaking in communion, the Didache moves on to a series of expectations and recommendations, most of which refer to the need to discern between the true and the false “apostles and prophets” (two titles that seem to be synonymous in the Didache). The principal means the Didache offers for such a discernment has to do with what such preachers do and ask for:

Let every apostle that cometh to you be received as the Lord. But he shall not remain except one day; but if there be need, also the next; but if he remain three days, he is a false prophet. And when the apostle goeth away, let him take nothing but bread until he lodgeth; but if he asks for money, he is a false prophet. . . . Whoever saith in the Spirit, Give me money, or something else, ye shall not listen to him; but if he saith to you to give for others’ sake who are in need, let no one judge him. (Didache 11.4–6; 12; ANF 7:380–81)

In summary, the Didache is a most valuable book, not because of the novelty of its ideas nor because of its elegant style, but rather because it reflects the practices, beliefs, and challenges of the first years in the life of the church.

CLEMENT OF ROME

While the Didache offers a glimpse into the life of the church in a remote area of Syria, the Epistle to the Corinthians, traditionally attributed to Clement of Rome, shows how quickly the Christian faith was being clothed in Hellenistic vestments.

Very little is known of the life of Clement, although there are abundant legends and traditions. According to some ancient writers, Clement accompanied Paul on some of his pastoral duties. Others attribute to him the Epistle to the Hebrews, which appears in the New Testament. There were stories about his conflicts with Simon Magus. All of this is extremely doubtful. What is certain is that Clement was bishop of Rome toward the end of the first century. Some ancient lists declare him to be the immediate successor of Peter, while others make him the third bishop of Rome. If he wrote this Epistle to the Corinthians, this is the only one of his writings that is extant.

From the letter itself, as well as from what little else is known with certainty about Clement, it seems that this letter was written about the year 95 or 96, that is, at about the same time when John was writing his visions on Patmos. Like John in his Revelation, Clement constantly refers to the Old Testament, as well as to other Jewish literature of the time. But, unlike John, Clement employs the same Greek translation of the Old Testament that most of the authors of the New Testament use, the Septuagint. Also, in contrast to John, Clement makes ample use of the resources of Greek rhetoric, with which he seems to be familiar. But even so, certain elements in the manner in which he uses the Greek language seem to indicate that, though he had studied the language, he had been shaped in a Jewish background. Therefore, it seems that Clement was a Jew who had either been converted to Christianity and then moved to Rome or who had lived in Rome and was one of the early converts in that city. In any case, there is no doubt that he was a cultured man, not only in his own Hebrew tradition, but also in terms of Hellenistic culture.

Although the Letter to the Corinthians is traditionally attributed to Clement alone, the epistle itself has the church in Rome addressing its counterpart in Corinth: “The Church of God which sojourns at Rome, to the Church of God sojourning at Corinth” (1 Clem. 1; ANF 1:5). Apparently the church in Corinth had not solved the conflicts and the divisions that are so prominent in Paul’s correspondence with it, and therefore Clement writes about “that shameful and detestable sedition, utterly abhorrent to the elect of God, which a few rash and self-confident persons have kindled to such a pitch of frenzy, that your venerable and illustrious name, worthy to be universally loved, has suffered grievous injury” (1 Clem. 1; ANF 1:5).

The first nineteen chapters of the letter affirm that the church in Corinth was known for its faith and virtues, but then pride and envy have led to its present conflicts. By way of foundation, the epistle includes a fairly long review of the history of Israel, first of all showing how jealousy and envy lead to all sorts of evil, and then offering the alternative of an obedience that leads to unity. After referring to Cain and Abel, Clement comments:

Ye see, brethren, how envy and jealousy led to the murder of a brother. Through envy, also, our father Jacob fled from the face of Esau his brother. Envy made Joseph be persecuted unto death, and to come into bondage. Envy compelled Moses to flee from the face of Pharaoh king of Egypt. . . . On account of envy, Aaron and Miriam had to make their abode without the camp. Envy brought down Dathan and Abiram alive to Hades, through the sedition which they excited against God’s servant Moses. Through envy, David underwent the hatred not only of foreigners, but was also persecuted by Saul king of Israel. (1 Clem. 4; ANF 1:6)

Then, after several examples and a call to repentance, Clement includes words that remind us of the Epistle to the Hebrews, chapter 11, although in this case what he proposes is not faith, as Hebrews does, but rather obedience and hospitality:

Let us take Enoch, who, being found righteous in obedience, was translated, and death was never known to happen to him. Noah, being found faithful, preached regeneration to the world through his ministry; and the Lord saved by him the animals which, with one accord, entered into the ark. Abraham, styled “the friend,” was found faithful, inasmuch as he rendered obedience to the words of God. He, in the exercise of obedience, went out from his own country, and from his kindred, and from his father’s house, in order that . . . he might inherit the promises of God. . . . On account of his hospitality and godliness, Lot was saved out of Sodom. . . . On account of her faith and hospitality, Rahab the harlot was saved. (1 Clem. 9–12; ANF 1:7–8)

All of this leads to an exhortation to meekness and humility, following not only the example of Jesus Christ, but also all the great figures of the Old Testament. And Clement concludes this first section of his letter with other words that again remind us of Hebrews:

Thus the humility and godly submission of so great and illustrious men have rendered not only us, but also all the generations before us, better; even as many as have received His oracles in fear and truth. Wherefore, having so many great and glorious examples set before us, let us turn again to the practice of that peace which from the beginning was the mark set before us; and let us look steadfastly to the Father and Creator of the universe. (1 Clem. 19; ANF 1:10)

These words then lead Clement to pen a lyrical passage about the harmony of God’s creation, and hence the harmony that is found at the very center of the Christian faith. The high point of such faith is the resurrection of Jesus Christ, which is also the foundation of a call for a holy life. This life, including both faith and good works, is set forth in an order that one must obey. Such obedience is necessary for the working of the whole. In an army, for instance, “All are not prefects, nor commanders of a thousand, nor of a hundred, nor of fifty, nor the like, but each one in his own rank performs the things commanded by the king and the generals. The great cannot subsist without the small, nor the small without the great” (1 Clem. 37; ANF 1:15).

The same is true of the church, whose leaders are the successors of the apostles. All of this is based on a hierarchical order of faith, because just as Jesus was sent by the Father, so were the apostles sent by Jesus. These apostl...