Behavioral, Social, and Emotional Assessment of Children and Adolescents

Sara Whitcomb, Sara A. Whitcomb

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2017
• Print ISBN:
  9781138814394
  9781032244587
• Edition: 5
• eBook ISBN:
  9781317601593
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Education Counseling
• Index: Psychology

Generally recognized as the standard work in its field, Behavioral, Social, and Emotional Assessment of Children and Adolescents is a comprehensive guide for conducting conceptually sound, culturally responsive, and ecologically oriented assessments of students' social and emotional behavior. Written for graduate students, practitioners, and researchers in the fields of school psychology, child clinical psychology, and special education, it will also be of interest to those in related disciplines. Building on the previous editions, this fifth edition includes updated references to DSM-5 and federal standards as well as an integrated approach to culturally competent assessment throughout the text.

In Part I, Foundations and Methods of Assessment, the author provides a general foundation for assessment practice and outlines basic professional and ethical issues, cultural considerations, and classification and diagnostic problems. Part II, Assessment of Specific Problems, Competencies, and Populations, includes material on assessing specific social–emotional behavior domains, including externalizing problems, internalizing problems, social skills and social–emotional strengths, and the unique needs of young children. A chapter on school-wide screening methods was also added with this edition. By weaving together the most recent research evidence and common application issues in a scholarly yet practical matter, Behavioral, Social, and Emotional Assessment of Children and Adolescents continues to be the pre-eminent foundation for assessment courses.

Part I
FOUNDATIONS AND METHODS OF ASSESSMENT

1
FOUNDATIONS OF ASSESSMENT

This chapter introduces important issues in social–emotional assessment, provides a foundation for understanding the design and flow of subsequent chapters, and overview of the current state of the art in best assessment practices. The chapter begins with an exploration of how theory guides practice, using social cognitive theory and ecological systems theories as preferred models, and then describes some of the philosophical foundations on which present-day assessment practices are built. A discussion of the referral process is then provided, with specific emphasis on how referral processes are tied to spheres within human ecological systems, and how referrals should shape the approach to assessment. Assessment is conceptualized and proposed as a comprehensive problem-solving process. The preferred way for conducting assessments of behavioral, social, and emotional problems is through the use of an aggregated multimethod, multisource, multisetting design, which is ideally implemented through an approach involving services for all individuals within a population. The “triangle of support” model from the field of public health is seen as an ideal way to consider allocating screening and assessment services to produce the maximum impact within limited resources. A discussion of pertinent legal and ethical issues in assessment follows, and specific recommendations for legal and ethical assessment practices are provided. The chapter ends with a brief discussion of what criteria were used for including specific assessment techniques and instruments within the book. Essentially, this chapter serves as an introduction and guide for understanding the overall goals and the larger picture of the entire book.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR

Is theory essential for practice? More specifically, can one conduct reliable and valid assessments of youngsters with behavioral, social, and emotional problems without being firmly grounded in a theoretical orientation to how these problems develop, progress, and change? Well, one might administer some tests and interpret the results under this scenario. But is this type of approach the most desirable? Probably, it is not. Without a solid theoretical background and orientation, the assessor is relegated to the somewhat paraprofessional role of a technician or tester. No matter how skilled, he or she may never fully integrate the assessment findings to the youngster’s past, and future, with an adequate degree of continuity or unity. Additionally, developing a solid theoretical understanding of the origins of behavioral, social, and emotional problems may have important implications when it is time to link assessment results to a useful intervention plan.

This book was designed with a specific theoretical foundation of human behavior in mind: social learning or social cognitive theory. In addition, this book includes a strong emphasis on ecological or environmental aspects of behavior, and thus also has a strong emphasis on social-ecological theory. Before delving into an exploration of these two theoretical models, this section first provides a brief discussion of some other approaches to conceptualizing human behavior and how theory shapes practice. Then, in more detail, we explore social cognitive theory and its related aspects, and introduce the notion of social ecological theory.

To say that there is a traditional theory of human behavior, or even a small handful of these theories, in modern psychology, is misleading. Although psychodynamic and behavioral theories were strong and distinct unitary forces in the early days of psychology, neither one of these schools of thought, similar to most other ways of conceptualizing human behavior, is currently considered a unitary force, as they have matured, and to some extent, have split into divergent schools of thought, if not factions, that have a common lineage.

Let us take behaviorism as an example in more detail. In the modern world of behaviorism, there are divergent schools of thought that take significantly different approaches and yet still fall under the umbrella of behaviorism. The “true believers” in behaviorism are probably those who claim the strongest legacy to Skinner, Watson and Raynor, and Thorndike. This contingent of behaviorism is perhaps best exemplified by those who are active practitioners of experimental and applied behavior analysis, which can be traced directly to B. F. Skinner and his brilliant and voluminous work that spanned a 60-year period from 1930 to 1990, making him unquestionably the most influential American psychologist. To summarize applied behavior analysis or the work of Skinner in a few short sentences is presumptuous to say the least. With this caveat in place, however, behavior analysis is grounded in the notion that behaviour is shaped by the antecedents that precede it and the consequences that follow. This notion is key to understanding, predicting, and changing behaviour. A more recent school of thought within the behavioral world is a diverse group of ideas for understanding and changing behavior that center around the term cognitive behavior therapy. This loose-knit faction does claim some legacy to Skinner’s work, considering that overt emitted behaviors, consequences, and the environment are important. The emphasis on internal cognitive processes and mediating events that links most theories in cognitive behavioral therapy is a clear departure, however, from the framework advocated by Skinner and his colleagues. In fact, throughout his career, Skinner repeatedly criticized “mentalistic” approaches to learning and behavior. In his later years, Skinner became particularly vocal in this regard. His mid-1980s article titled “The Shame of American Education” (B. F. Skinner, 1984) included an angry and disappointed indictment of the American educational system for failing to adopt scientifically based learning and management procedures and focusing instead on mentalistic or cognitive constructs that could not be easily defined or measured. In his last public address, shortly before his death in 1990, after receiving an award for his lifetime of scientific contributions, Skinner presented a keynote address at a meeting of the American Psychological Association (APA), in which he thoroughly lambasted “cognitive science,” portraying it as a misguided attempt to explain human behavior through studying underlying mental processes, which is a throwback to mentalism and turn-of-the-century introspectionism. In addition to receiving four standing ovations during his sometimes dramatic address, Skinner also shocked many in his audience by referring derisively to cognitive science as “the creationism of psychology” (APA, 1990).

The point to be made by this brief discussion of the evolution of modern behaviorism is that the traditional theoretical schools of thought that are discussed in general psychology textbooks have evolved tremendously over the years, often branching into smaller groups that share common backgrounds. This same process is true for other traditional theoretical schools of thought, such as psychodynamic theory, the neurobiological model, and the humanistic movement. The philosophical basis of each of these areas has evolved tremendously over the years, and there is no longer just a small and powerful handful of theoretical schools with which a practitioner may be aligned. Clinicians and researchers today are much more likely to consider themselves “eclectic” in their theoretical approach to human behavior than to align themselves with one school of thought. These present circumstances have had a dual effect: on one hand, the decreasing amount of dogmatism has paved the way for acceptance of new and influential theories, but on the other hand, the current generation of clinicians is perhaps less likely to place a great deal of thought to their theoretical orientation, which could lead to an unanchored approach to assessment and treatment.

Social Cognitive Theory: An Integrated Orientation

Social cognitive theory, a primary underlying orientation in this book, is a sophisticated and complex theory that takes into account not only the multiple causes of behavioral, social, and emotional problems, but also the reciprocal nature of the relationship between causes and effects. This theory is not overviewed in order to proselytize the nonbeliever—it is not a philosophy of life and does not have to carry any metaphysical implications. Although you should understand that it is the framework embedded within this book, social cognitive theory is proposed as a solid foundation for assessment of children and adolescents because it takes into account many potential factors contributing to the assessment problems; it is flexible; and in its fullest form, it has strong implications for linking assessment data to intervention planning.

Components of Social Cognitive Theory Social cognitive theory and the related concepts of triadic reciprocality and observational learning are based on the work of Albert Bandura (e.g., 1977, 1978, 1986). Most people who have studied psychology and related fields at the graduate level are familiar with Bandura’s famous work on social learning processes in aggression. These processes were demonstrated in the famous “Bobo Doll” experiments wherein the effects of models and perceived consequences were found to have a tremendous impact on aggressive and prosocial behavior in school-age and preschool-age children. These particular demonstrations of social cognitive theory do not tell the full story and do not account for the entire complexity of the process. Although it is impossible to detail social cognitive theory completely in a portion of one book chapter (for a comprehensive account, see Bandura’s 1986 book, Social Foundations of Thought and Action), it is useful to review its major components. As stated by Bandura (1986), social cognitive theory holds that:

[People] are neither driven by inner forces nor automatically shaped and controlled by external stimuli. Rather, human functioning is explained in terms of a model of triadic reciprocality in which behavior, cognitive and other personal factors, and environmental events all operate as determinants of each other.

(p. 18)

The nature of people is explained in terms of five basic human capabilities: symbolizing capability, forethought capability, vicarious capability, self-regulatory capability, and self-reflective capability.

Symbolizing capability involves the use of various symbols, including language, as a means of altering and adapting to different environments. The use of symbols allows communication with others, even at distant times or places. Forethought capability consists of the anticipation of likely consequences of behavior and is demonstrated by intentional and purposive actions that are future oriented. Vicarious capability is entailed by the fact that not all learning must result from direct experience, but can occur through the observation of other people’s behaviors and the consequences that follow them. Self-regulatory capability affects the development of our own internal standards and self-evaluative reactions to our behavior—discrepancies between our internal standards and our actual behaviors govern our future behavior. Self-reflective capability involves self-consciousness, or the uniquely human ability that enables us to think about and evaluate our own thought processes. Together, these five fundamental human capabilities form the basis for our vast human potential and help explain the inner workings that result in our behavioral output.

Triadic Reciprocality: Understanding the Determinants of Behavior The social cognitive viewpoint supports a conception of the causes of human behavior being due to reciprocal determinism. The idea behind reciprocal determinism is that the causes behind one’s behavior become influenced and shaped by the behavior itself. Specifically, the type of reciprocal determinism favored by social cognitive theory is known as triadic reciprocality (Bandura, 1977, 1978). This view contends that behavior, environmental influences, and various personal factors (e.g., cognition, temperament, biology) all work together in an interactive manner and have the effect of acting as determinants of each other. Bandura’s theory of triadic reciprocality is illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 An outline of Bandura’s (1986) theory of triadic reciprocality

Triadic reciprocality in social cognitive theory can be exemplified in practical terms through an example of the interaction process between parents and a newborn child. Take a scenario where the infant happens to have an irritable or difficult temperament, which is present from birth and is probably biological in nature. The infant’s irritable temperament is an example of a personal factor. Because this particular infant tends to cry frequently and in a most distressing tone, is highly demanding, and sleeps for only short periods of time (behavioral factors), an environment is created in which constant demands, noise, and limited opportunities for sleep interact with the personal factors of the parents to help shape their own behavior and characteristics in the direction of their being constantly tired, more irritable than normal, anxious, frustrated, and perhaps over time, somewhat depressed. The behavior of the parents continues to shape the environment of the infant, and the infant’s behavior continues to shape the environment of the parents, which in turn affects their personal characteristics. If the infant persists in being highly irritable and demanding, and the parents tend to reinforce these demands with immediate attention in an attempt to terminate their child’s difficult behavior, the child’s irritable and demanding personal characteristics will ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• List of Figures
• List of Tables
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Part I Foundations and Methods of Assessment
• Part II Assessment of Specific Problems, Competencies, and Populations
• References
• Index