Sport and Development in Emerging Nations

Cem Tinaz, Brendon Knott, Cem Tinaz, Brendon Knott

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2021
• Print ISBN: 9780367903602
• eBook ISBN: 9781000374315
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Sport & Exercise Science
• Index: Business

For the first time, this book examines the strategies of leaders of emerging nations to use sport as a tool for reaching social, economic, cultural, political, technological or environmental goals and gaining international prestige. It assesses whether sport can really be an effective tool in international development.

The book explores the unique challenges, issues and opportunities offered by sport for development in emerging nations. Bringing together case studies of sport and development in countries including Brazil, China, Czech Republic, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Poland, Qatar, South Africa, South Korea and Turkey, the book looks at policies designed to achieve development through, by and for sport, and whether they have achieved their socio-economic objectives. It considers the way that emerging nations have used major international sports events as political and developmental projects, as well as the importance of sporting infrastructure, professional leagues, participation programmes and the influence of nationalism and ideology.

With a truly global perspective, this book is important reading for any student, researcher or policy-maker with interest in sport management, sport development, development studies, international economics, globalisation or political science.

Chapter 1

Introduction
Defining sport and development in emerging nations

Cem Tinaz and Brendon Knott

The sport industry has been enjoying increased benefits and expanded opportunities through the process of globalisation. As Jarvie (2006) has stated, the global era of sport has presented fundamental challenges for sport organisations. Still, it has also created the opportunity for sport to be a social force for internationalism, reconciliation and international development.

Sport is currently linked to a wide variety of development initiatives as it is often posited as a tool to assist in economic and social development. With great optimism, many countries facing acute demographic shifts towards youth tend to see sport as a means to suppress delinquency, unemployment and drug use. Each month multiple new organisations using sport to achieve specific results have been established (Hayhurst and Frisby, 2010).

At the same time, sport can provide physical, mental and social benefits to improve the well-being of an ageing population. It can be used to promote social inclusion of otherwise marginalised people. As Kay and Bradbury (2009) have suggested, involvement in sport is understood to confer life skills, leadership qualities, social knowledge and values. However, it would be very naive to say that such positive outcomes happen naturally or organically through participation. In other words, solely playing sport does not lead to developmental outcomes; in order to have a productive effect on development, sport programmes should be organised and structured in purposive, systematic ways. According to Coalter (2009), although participation in sport can be a useful mechanism for development, it is not sufficient alone to engender social change. Hartmann (2003) emphasised that the non-sport components of any sport-based social interventionist programme are what define its strength.

Houlihan and White (2002) argued that the area of sport development is not static; the objectives, practises, primary agents and recourses change over time as does the definition of sport development. Hartmann and Kwauk (2011) stated that one of the most critical initial challenges for understanding and theorising the field of sport and development is the ambiguity and multiplicity around conceptions of development. Furthermore, the interpretation and definition of sport development has different meanings to different agencies, such as sports governing bodies, clubs, corporations and NGOs. In its most comprehensive meaning, sport development refers to participating in sport itself and promoting the opportunities and benefits of such participation, and as Kidd (2008) argues, it is a project of sport organisations. The potential outcomes of sport development may include betterments of the sport itself, plus individuals who are involved in sport for various benefits and experiences, and in a wider sense nations and communities. From a practitioner’s perspective, Astle (2014, p. 15) defined sport development as:

The sustainable provision of, and access to, integrated pathways of relevant, appealing and affordable sporting opportunities for individuals, irrespective of age, ability, interest or gender, to participate, enjoy and progress in a supportive environment that has the infrastructure and services, capable of offering high-quality experiences, that satisfy their diverse and changing needs, motivations and expectations, and ensure their continued involvement in sport.

Initial attempts to define sport development considered two aspects: the development of sport and development through sport (Houlihan and White, 2002). Intending to build sport capacity, development of sport refers to the development of the sport itself or, in other words, the creation of opportunities for participants and the enhancement of the sport. Mainly, these are the activities designed both to excel in performance and increase participation. On the other hand, development through sport focuses on the role sport can play in enhancing the well-being of individuals, communities and societies (Ha, Lee and Ok, 2015). According to this approach, sport constitutes a powerful tool for social integration, promotion of health and disease prevention, creating physical and psychological benefits for individuals, development of the community and social capital and empowerment of minorities, girls and women (Levermore, 2008a). As a result of this approach, recently sport has gained increased importance as a tool to promote health, education and peace. Nevertheless, as Levermore and Beacom (2009) have expressed, we should bear in mind that these socio-economic aspects and sport are not mutually exclusive. As they state, different social aspects such as leadership, inclusion and capacity building are linked to sport aspects such as coaching, performance and physical skills.

In his conceptual framework, Coalter (2009) defined two ends of sport and development: sport plus and plus sport. In this conceptualisation, sport plus programmes focus on the development of sport-oriented initiatives such as sustainable sport organisations, programmes and development pathways, while plus sport programmes focus on achieving non-sport goals, such as social or economic development. The main concern of plus sport programmes is how sport can aid social and economic development.

Astle (2014) reworked these definitions by providing the following six sub-categories of sport development:

• Development IN sport: the extent to which authorities adapt sport to make them more attractive to audiences.
• Development OF sport: breaking down barriers to participation.
• Development FOR sport: the production of elite talent.
• Development THROUGH sport: community initiatives in nations.
• Sport FOR development: promoting sport in developing nations.
• Sport AND development: the connection between sport and humanitarian issues.

However, we should consider that these sub-categories are not mutually exclusive and can often overlap as a result of the occasionally interchangeable nature of the terms sport and development. As Schulenkorf, Sherry and Rowe (2016) have stated regarding the focus and purpose of sport development initiatives, these interpretations are interconnected and share much in common. Each interpretation represents a different perspective of sport development, which is defined by key features that reflect the interests and expectations of the different agencies involved and the environment in which they operate (Astle, Leberman and Watson, 2018).

According to Astle, Leberman and Watson (2018), “development IN sport” considers how sport has evolved and adapted its content and appearance for the benefit of itself and its stakeholders. Development IN sport focuses on the emergence, codification, diffusion and adaptation to change of different sports (Astle, Leberman and Watson, 2018).

The development OF sports has been defined as a traditional approach representing the creation and development of sport initiatives aimed at building sport capacity (Green, 2005). This framework is focused on ensuring that community sport remains up to date by providing flexible opportunities and ways of experience that attract and retain participants in sport in order to ensure the future growth and sustainability of sport (Astle, Leberman and Watson, 2018).

According to Astle, Leberman and Watson (2018), development FOR sport has similar aspects to development OF sport, except essentially its primary focus, which is developing elite sport. Here, the particular concern is on developing children and youth into high-calibre performers.

As explained earlier, development THROUGH sport approaches sport as a driving force in conducting various development programmes, covering issues such as the resolution of intergroup conflict, the physical and psychological benefits of sport, the promotion of cultural understanding, the development of physical and social infrastructures, the empowerment of girls, women or disadvantaged groups and social inclusion (Ha, Lee, and Ok, 2015).

Levermore (2008b) grouped sport FOR development initiatives into six clusters, namely conflict resolution and intercultural understanding; building physical, social, sport and community infrastructure; raising awareness, particularly through education; empowerment; direct impact on physical and psychological health as well as general welfare; and finally, economic development/poverty alleviation. Astle, Leberman and Watson (2018) distinguish development THROUGH sport from sport FOR development mainly through the geographical setting, as development THROUGH sport deals with community sport in developed nations and sport FOR development deals with community sport in developing nations.

Finally, sport AND development is related to the capacity of sport to contribute to personal and social development. It is claimed that sport has inherent physical, social and moral qualities, and the experience of participating in sport provides individuals with opportunities to inspire confidence, learn to accept gain and losses and develop qualities such as work ethics and team spirit (Astle, Leberman and Watson, 2018).

Sport and development in emerging nations

As has already been stated, globally, sport has been used as a practical and discursive tool for development. Not only developing countries but also those that are more developed try to take advantage of certain sport attributes to assist with objectives linked to international development/relations (Levermore, 2008a). The role of sport in development initiatives has grown dramatically in recent times, now finding a place in the UN’s sustainable development goals. The business of sport and its role in development is a growing academic field, with specialist sport management courses emerging to cater for the increased professionalisation and global reach of the sport industry. Sport development has gained a lot of interest during recent years not only from academic scholars but also practitioners. In many countries, large-scale or sport mega-events have become key factors in local and national development strategies. Hosting sport events is seen to be a key to boosting tourism, local investment and employment, although genuinely sustainable legacies are unfortunately an exception. As Grix, Brannagan and Lee (2019) have stated, sport mega-events such as the FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games, which until recently were only hosted by developed countries, have become the perfect soft power project for emerging nations such as Brazil, South Africa and China, as well as Qatar. Additionally, sport has the potential to provide opportunities to challenge dominant social structures which have long existed in these nations. Globalisation offers new opportunities for sport leagues, teams, events and manufacturers in developed economies. These organisations aim to promote their products and service specifically in emerging nations (Zhang et al., 2018). The emerging nations are undergoing rapid urbanisation and development; this has been instrumental to growth across the sport industry. One of the essential factors which led to the fast growth of the global sports industry during recent years was the fast growth of emerging nations. Therefore, it is vital to continue to explore the impact of new changes and trends in globalisation in relation to the development of sport industries in growing economies.

Grix, Brannagan and Lee (2019) indicated that an outcome of the 20th century has been the decentring of wealth and power from the major developed states – the United States, Japan and Europe – to the fast-developing nations in Africa, Asia, the Middle East and South America. Similarly, we have seen a shift in the sport industry, especially in the hosting of sport mega-events from the developed West to the developing nations. Most of these nations have faced very different challenges compared to the established Western nations. Besides the prevalent issues relating to social and economic under-development, many of these nations have experienced recent political and ideological regime changes or global isolation as a result of their political standing. Yet, the common denominator among these nations is a recognition of the opportunities that sport provides for both social and economic development. Both the public and private sectors are seeking to harness sport opportunities in various forms as a means to develop and promote their society and stimulate their economy. Recently, the importance of sport has risen unwaveringly in emerging nations. Governments’ spending on the development of the sport industry, specifically in hosting sport events, setting up sport infrastructure and building sport, has increased.

According to MSCI Market Classification Framework (2014), an emerging market is a market that has some characteristics of a developed market but does not fully meet its standards. They are moving away from their traditional economies that have relied on agriculture and the export of raw materials. As a result, they are rapidly industrialising and adopting a free market or mixed economy. It is evident that decision-makers or investors in emerging nations tend to use sport as one of the tools for reaching their social, economic, cultural, political, technological or environmental goals. By doing so, their countries can also gain international prestige.

The Morgan Stanley Capital International Emerging Market Index (MSCI, 2020) lists 26 countries. MSCI analyses indicators relating to sustainable economic growth, monetary policy, price stability, fiscal discipline, debt position, trade and current account balance. These are Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Czech Republic, Egypt, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey and the United Arab Emirates.

Aim of the book

This book only uses cases from emerging nations and thereby studies the relationship between sport and the development of a country. Yet each case has a unique focus on an aspect of sport, with a diversity of topics including sport policy, sport infrastructure, sport mega-events, professional sport leagues ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• List of Contributors
• Foreword
• Acknowledgements
• 1 Introduction: defining sport and development in emerging nations
• 2 Sport and development in Brazil: lessons from multiple sport mega-event hosting and sporting programmes in disadvantaged communities
• 3 Sport and development in China: professional football as wealth generator and national dream bearer
• 4 Sport and development in the Czech Republic: sport as a tool for social and cultural transformation
• 5 Sport and development in Hungary and the Central and Eastern European region: the development of the leisure sport industry
• 6 Sport and development in India: professional sport league systems
• 7 Sport and development in Indonesia: sport policy in the Reformation era
• 8 Sport and development in Mexico: ngos and community-based organisations underpinned by neo-liberal logics using sport as educational tools
• 9 Sport and development in Poland: national strategies and their implementation
• 10 Sport and development in Qatar: international and regional dynamics of sport mega-events
• 11 Sport and development in South Africa: sport in a changing society and economy
• 12 Sport and development in South Korea: a critical analysis of media discourses on the unified Korean women’s ice hockey team in the PyeongChang 2018 Olympic Games
• 13 Sport and development in Turkey: community sport participation, leisure spaces and social inclusion
• 14 Conclusion: lessons learned from the emerging nations
• Index