Signed Language Interpreting in the 21st Century

An Overview of the Profession

Len Roberson, Sherry Shaw, Len Roberson, Sherry Shaw

• Publisher: Gallaudet University Press
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781944838256
• Topic: Lingue e linguistica
• Subtopic: Linguistica

This text provides interpreting students with a broad knowledge base that encompasses the latest research, addresses current trends and perspectives of the Deaf community, and promotes critical thinking and open dialogue about the working conditions, ethics, boundaries, and competencies needed by a highly qualified interpreter in various settings. This volume expands the resources available to aspiring interpreters, including Deaf interpreters, and incorporates the voices of renowned experts on topics relevant to today's practitioners. Each chapter provides students with objectives, keywords, and discussion questions. The chapters convey clear information about topics that include credentialing, disposition and aptitude for becoming an interpreter, interpreting for people who are DeafBlind, and working within specialty settings, such as legal and healthcare. A key resource for interpreter certification test preparation, this text follows the interpreter's ethical, practical, and professional development through a career of lifelong learning and service.

CONTRIBUTORS

Carolyn Ball

VRS Interpreting Institute Salt Lake City, Utah

Robyn K. Dean

Department of American Sign Language and Interpreting Education National Technical Institute for the Deaf Rochester, New York

Carla M. Mathers, Esq.

Hyattsville, MD

Robert Q Pollard, Jr.

Administrative Council National Technical Institute for the Deaf Rochester, New York

Len Roberson

Department of Exceptional, Deaf, and Interpreter Education University of North Florida Jacksonville, Florida

Debra Russell

Department of Educational Psychology University of Alberta Edmonton, Canada

Sherry Shaw

Department of Exceptional, Deaf, and Interpreter Education University of North Florida Jacksonville, Florida

Linda K. Stauffer

Interpreter Education Program University of Arkansas Little Rock, Arkansas

Laurie Swabey

Department of American Sign Language and Interpreting St. Catherine University St. Paul, Minnesota

Anna Witter-Merithew

Project CLIMB University of North Colorado Greely, Colorado

1

Interpreting: An Overview

LEN ROBERSON

DEFINING TERMS: WHAT IS IT WE DO?

An interpreter conveys what is said or signed in one language into another language while maintaining the original intended message. Interpreting allows two or more individuals who do not share a common language to engage in a communicative interaction through a person who is bilingual. Signed language interpreters render “a spoken or signed source language message into a spoken or signed target language in real time” (International Organization for Standardization, 2014, p. 1).

Within the field of signed language interpretation, interpreters not only work between two or more languages, but also between different forms of the same language. This process, working between different forms of the same language, is referred to as transliterating. According to Winston (1989), transliterating is “a specific form of sign language interpreting.” It is the process of changing one form of an English message, either spoken English or signed English, into the other form. Translation, although often confused with interpreting, is a unique, albeit closely related, linguistic discipline. Translation is the process of converting a message in one printed language to the same message in another printed language while retaining all of the original meaning. Translators, like interpreters, work to not only maintain the integrity of the message itself, but also to include cultural understanding in the translation. There are times when signed language interpreters perform a similar task known as sight translation, working from a printed text into sign language. For example, an interpreter may have to translate an intake document in a doctor’s office for a Deaf consumer who prefers to have the form signed. In essence, the key difference between these two linguistic processes is in the medium of the work; translation involves a written text, whereas interpreting occurs between spoken and/ or signed languages.

SERVICE DELIVERY

Interpreting can be done in a number of ways, but it is typically accomplished either in person or via some form of technology. In-person interpreting is by far the more common method of interpreting and certainly, for many Deaf and hard of hearing individuals, the preferred method. However, recent advances in technology have created opportunities for interpreting to occur without the physical presence of an interpreter. For the field of sign language interpreting, this is a rather new occurrence. The availability of high-definition video technology allows interpreters to be in one location while the individuals who are communicating are in two different locations. Although interpreting services using technology are constantly improving and serve a general purpose for non-urgent interpreting, there is still a need for research on the effectiveness of technology-based interpreting in the areas of high-risk interpreting (e.g., medical and legal interpreting). Although many deaf and hard of hearing individuals enjoy the use of technology-based interpreting for everyday tasks, such as calling a friend, ordering a meal, or making an appointment, these same individuals often prefer a live interpreter to be present with them during other interpreted events.

In-Person Interpreting

Interpreters who work in a live setting have direct and in-person access to all parties engaged in communication. Often, this means managing the physical space and environment as well as the discourse exchange between speakers. For example, when interpreting in person, an interpreter is often the individual who ensures the arrangement of all parties in the room is supportive of full and equal access to all as well the general management of such environmental factors as lighting, seating, and audio/visual materials. Interpreters working in a live setting have an easier time with turn-taking, the volume of the spoken message, and visual access to extra items and people present that may not be easily accessible via technology.

Signed language interpreters work as independent (freelance) contractors, or as staff interpreters. Independent contractors provide their services to many different people. They can obtain jobs through a signed language interpreting agency or by contracting directly with companies and people in need of interpreting services. These interpreters work on a fee-for-service basis, and they are paid by the hour or by the day or week. They can work for more than one company or person at a time, but they are not employees of any one agency or company; they are self-employed. As such, they are responsible for paying taxes on a quarterly schedule.

Staff interpreters are salaried workers in an organization, and they provide interpreting services for employees, visitors, or customers. Many businesses, organizations, and agencies (e.g., K–12 and postsecondary school systems, government agencies, hospitals, state and federal court systems, and private corporations) hire full-time interpreters. According to AIIC, “career paths of staff interpreters vary widely” with many staff interpreters remaining with a single organization for many years (see International Association of Conference Interpreters, 2011). Staff interpreting positions may include other responsibilities (e.g., managing interpreting services for the organization, administrative support services, providing accessibility consultation and training, etc.), and often build in time to prepare for specific assignments and other duties. Staff interpreter positions are usually salaried, include benefits, and often provide for regular salary increases, opportunities for professional development and training, as well as advancement opportunities. Another benefit of a staff interpreter position is the development of collegial relationships with other employees, both Deaf and hearing.

A staff interpreter may also be a designated interpreter; that is, hired to work alongside a Deaf professional to interpret all of the individual’s interaction with nonsigning individuals (e.g., customers, patients, and coworkers). Designated interpreters have been hired to work with Deaf doctors, lawyers, engineers, real estate agents, artists, educators, and corporate administrators, to name a few. Designated interpreters must have excellent linguistic and interpreting skills, expertise in a particular field or profession, including terminology, and a strong partnership with the Deaf professionals with whom they work. The book Deaf Professionals and Designated Interpreters: A New Paradigm is an excellent resource for understanding the work of designated interpreters.

Interpreting via Technology

Interpreting, in a fundamental sense, is about access. From the time the telephone was developed, technology has had a part in providing access. Although deaf people could not use the telephone themselves, they would ask a hearing family member or friend who signed to make the call, so they could engage in conversation with someone. With the advent of telecommunications devices for the deaf (TDDs), deaf people could call each other over the telephone lines and type their conversations. Access to the telephone became more widely available when the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) required (see Title IV of the ADA) telephone companies to provide relay services across the United States. The early relay services used a TDD and involved a hearing person, a deaf person, and a communication assistant (interpreter) to relay the messages back and forth. All of the parties involved in the call were in a different location.

New video technologies have made it possible for interpreters to work in one location for an entire shift and to handle calls from many different locations. The newest forms of technology-related interpreting are video remote interpreting (VRI) and video-relay service interpreting (VRS). Both types rely on computers or other similar devices with video capabilities and broadband internet access to connect Deaf and hearing individuals with an interpreter. The interpreter can then facilitate the communication between all parties.

There are fundamental differences between these two services. Video-relay services are provided by companies who specialize in this form of interpreting. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) reimburses the companies and requires that the parties (the Deaf person, the hearing person, and the signed language interpreter) cannot be in the same location.

VRI services are often used when two of the parties (e.g., the Deaf and hearing person, the Deaf person and the interpreter, or the interpreter and the hearing, nonsigning person) are in the same room. The VRI service provider usually has a contract with the individual or organization requesting the interpreting services. Both VRI and VRS allow interpreters to work from remote locations that may be far from the physical location of the assignment. Although this seems to be an excellent solution for access, often the communication may prove to be ineffective due to limitations in bandwidth, difficulty in viewing a multidimensional language on a flat screen, and the challenges of interacting with all parties and the environment via video technologies. VRI may not be the right solution for all situations or all individuals involved, and its use should be carefully considered and the benefits and limitations weighed before using.

SETTINGS

General

Signed language interpreters have many opportunities to work in a variety of settings with diverse groups of individuals. Some of these settings require specialized skill sets, training, and experience. This is especially true for educational, medical, and legal interpreting.

Although a list of potential settings can be considered and presented, in reality, an interpreter could work in any situation in which a Deaf person interacts with others who cannot communicate on their own with the Deaf person. This suggests endless possibilities for where an interpreter could work. Such possibilities might include any of the following:

• working as a full-time staff interpreter for a company, corporation, or organization

• health care (i.e., doctor’s office, hospital, surgical center)

• educational (i.e., preschool–12th grade, college, technical school, continuing education)

• legal (i.e., attorney–client meetings, court, mediation, law enforcement)

• conferences and meetings

• social clubs and activities

• vacation and holiday events (i.e., amusement parks, cruises, travel tours)

• sporting teams, events

• theater and musical performances

• religious services, events

• family events (i.e., funerals, weddings, family reunions)

Educational

Educational interpreters provide services in settings that involve teaching and learning. These settings range from traditional classrooms (preschool through college) to continuing education classes, adult learning opportunities, employee training within work settings, and even postsecondary training programs. Interpreters have been used in schools and educational environments for many decades; however, the field of educational interpreting has experienced significant growth thanks to federal legislation, particularly the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 and its reauthorization as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1990, 2004). Although residential schools for the deaf have had a long history of educating both deaf and hard of hearing students, the recent and current focus on inclusion as an educational practice has significantly increased the number of deaf and hard of hearing students being educated alongside their hearing peers throughout the public schools of the United States. This increase in placements has necessitated the growth of the number of educational interpreters employed by school districts.

Educational interpreters can expect their duties and responsibilities to vary, depending on the school system in which they work. Some schools require interpreters to interpret not only for academic classes, but also for extracurricular activities, which can include athletic events, student organization meetings, student clubs, and even on-the-job training work experiences and internships. They may also expect the interpreter to fulfill other responsibilities as a staff member within the school. A growing trend in the area of educational interpreting is that interpreters are hired predominately for interpreting wo...