Planet on Fire

A Manifesto for the Age of Environmental Breakdown

Mathew Lawrence, Laurie Laybourn-Langton

• Publisher: Verso
• Year: 2021
• Print ISBN: 9781839765100
• eBook ISBN: 9781788738781
• Topic: Economics
• Subtopic: Political Economy
• Index: Economics

As we rebuild our lives in the wake of Covid-19 and face the challenges of ecological disaster, how can the left win a world fit for life?

Planet on Fire is an urgent manifesto for a fundamental reimagining of the global economy. It offers a clear and practical road map for a future that is democratic and sustainable by design. Laurie Laybourn-Langton and Mathew Lawrence argue that it is not enough merely to spend our way out of the crisis; we must also rapidly reshape the economy to create a new way of life that can foster a healthy and flourishing environment for all.

Planet on Fire offers a detailed and achievable manifesto for a new politics capable of tackling environmental breakdown.

1

THIS IS ABOUT POWER

Whatever happens we have got

The Maxim gun, and they have not.

Hilaire Belloc, ‘The Modern Traveller’

Until the lions have their own historians, the history of the hunt will always glorify the hunter.

Chinua Achebe

In 1722, in a remote expanse of the Pacific Ocean, the Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen squinted out from the deck of his flagship at a triangle of land sitting on the horizon. Roggeveen had set sail nearly a year earlier to explore the uncharted seas west of South America. His aim: to find the mythic Terra Australis Incognita, the ‘unknown land of the south’, and map a western trade route to the lucrative spice markets of Southeast Asia. Rounding Cape Horn, his three ships spent nearly a month on the Juan Fernández Islands, over 400 miles off the coast of Chile. It was here that Alexander Selkirk, the marooned Royal Navy officer who inspired the story of Robinson Crusoe, had been found a decade earlier. The isolation was profound. On 17 March they set off again, this time into the vast expanses of the Pacific. Nearly three weeks and over 1,500 miles later, they sighted an island on Easter Sunday and duly named it Paasch-Eyland, or Easter Island.

Roggeveen and his crew observed as few as 2,000 inhabitants occupying a tract of land notably empty of trees and studded with imposing moai, the monolithic head-andtorso statues carved from stone blocks erected to face inland, away from the sea. Roggeveen was astonished:

These stone figures caused us to be filled with wonder, for we could not understand how it was possible that people who are destitute of heavy or thick timber, and also of stout cordage, out of which to construct gear, had been able to erect them; nevertheless some of these statues were a good 30 feet in height and broad in proportion.¹

Subsequent visitors recorded as many as 900 moai across the island, over half of which remained mysteriously unfinished in the quarry. By the 1870s, as Western missionaries arrived, they found a population that had fallen to just over 100, barely surviving on the island’s sixty-three square miles. How could this barren island have provided a home for such an extraordinary civilisation? What cataclysm had befallen the moai’s ingenious sculptors? These questions intrigued generations of Western explorers and scholars. John Linton Palmer – a Royal Navy surgeon on HMS Topaze, which, in 1868, stole the great Hoa Hakananai moai currently on display in the British Museum – thought the statues were ‘made by a race passed away’.²

More recently, many scholars have posited that Polynesian explorers arrived around 800CE and began overexploiting its natural resources. Easter Island’s extreme isolation meant its inhabitants were entirely dependent on the island’s delicate ecosystem and natural resources, such as the thick forests of Paschalococos disperta, a native palm. Pollen analysis has shown that, by 1650, the Easter Island palm was extinct.³ Evidence seemed to suggest that these trees were cleared to make way for agriculture and horticulture, to provide fuel for cooking, to build canoes, and to be used as rollers to move the moai from the quarry. Deforestation exacerbated soil erosion, impairing agricultural productivity, and overexploitation of land and sea birds drove a collapse in their populations. By around 1680, the inhabitants were reduced to burning grass and scraps of sugarcane for fuel, and had stopped building the moai. Environmental disaster soon graduated into social calamity. As the food ran out, the Rapa Nui’s political order was overthrown by violent military leaders and the island fell into civil war. As society collapsed, desperate survivors turned to cannibalism.

By 1722, Roggeveen found a population that had dwindled from around 15,000 to as little as 2,000. Over the course of a few generations, a crescendo of self-inflicted environmental destruction drove the complex, thriving society of Easter Island to starvation, civil war and cannibalism. Jared Diamond featured this tragic tale in his bestselling book Collapse, presenting it as ‘the clearest example of a society that destroyed itself by overexploiting its own resources.’⁴ Writing elsewhere, he warned that

Easter Island is Earth writ small. Today, again, a rising population confronts shrinking resources. We too have no emigration valve, because all human societies are linked by international transport, and we can no more escape into space than the Easter Islanders could flee into the ocean. If we continue to follow our present course, we shall have exhausted the world’s major fisheries, tropical rain forests, fossil fuels, and much of our soil by the time my sons reach my current age.⁵

The complete eradication of the native palm was a crucial moment, depriving the islanders of fuel and, ultimately, their ability to grow food. This was, in effect, the islanders’ choice, however subconscious. As one book on the Rapa Nui puts it:

The person who felled the last tree could see that it was the last tree. But he (or she) still felled it. This is what is so worrying. Humankind’s covetousness is boundless. Its selfishness appears to be genetically inborn. Selfishness leads to survival. Altruism leads to death. The selfish gene wins. But in a limited ecosystem, selfishness leads to increasing population imbalance, population crash, and ultimately extinction.⁶

The Tragedy of Ecocide and the Mainstream Narrative

This telling of the history of Easter Island purports to show a simple truth. Societies that fail to respect environmental limits are doomed to commit ‘ecocide’, blindly exploiting nature to the point of collapse – and taking themselves with it. In many ways, this theory of environmentally induced suicide has come to dominate, explicitly or implicitly, the mainstream narrative of what has driven us to the point of disaster. In turn, it has a powerful effect on ideas for what we can and should do next.

A number of common themes are apparent. Human psychology sits at the forefront. In this interpretation, our evolutionary history predisposes us to selfishness and limits our ability to be mindful of the future. There was nothing particularly remarkable about the Rapa Nui; they were normal people looking out for their own interests and those of the people that mattered to them, much the same as us. And yet, even when it became apparent that the trees were at risk of disappearing altogether, the islanders still cut them down. This is the ‘tragedy of the commons’ at work: when resources are shared and those using them act according to their individual self-interest, the aggregate impact is to deplete the shared resource, damaging the common good.

Alongside innate psychology, this story asserts that three exacerbating factors drove the Rapa Nui to catastrophe: technology, population growth and the means whereby their society was organised. The island’s first settlers brought the knowledge and tools with which they felled trees, hunted birds, caught fish, and erected the moai. The environment was impacted, but not critically, and prosperity came to the Rapa Nui. Families grew, society flourished and the population rapidly increased. More people meant more mouths to feed, more unthinkingly selfish humans stamping over a fragile environment, taking their impact to a critical scale. At this point, it could be that many of the islanders foresaw what was to come. But what chance did they have against the vested interests of the tribal chiefs, canoe makers and moai carvers? After all, those stripping back the Amazon today are ‘only the latest in a long line … to cry, “Jobs over trees!” ’⁷

In all, this version of the story of the Rapa Nui appears to teach that ordinary people and their societies are prone, by their very nature, to succumb to selfishness and short-term thinking. While the initial stages of environmental degradation may go unnoticed, a critical point is soon reached, at which the signs of disaster are unavoidable. At that moment, people can choose to indulge in selfishness and petty disagreement or to act, taking a more sustainable course. Ultimately, it comes down to choice. This is how the story of Easter Island is perceived to reflect our current moment. Scientists have told us we must rapidly reduce our environmental impact and yet people continue to fly, eat beef and vote for parties funded by fossil fuel companies. One day soon, someone will emit the last tonne of carbon permitted under the IPCC’s carbon budget, or burn down the square mile of forest that finally triggers catastrophic dieback of the Amazon.

No wonder we find ourselves in a bind. While many governments promote clean technologies and pass regulations to slow environmental damage, they also subsidise fossil fuels and build roads, torn between environmental imperatives, the desires of voters, and the short-term needs of the economy. Campaigners do their best to shunt aside the vested interests of powerful companies and hold governments to account. But they struggle to engage the hearts and minds of most people, who would rather go on holiday and eat what they want. Every day, people the world over are doing ‘their bit’, recycling, voting, donating, campaigning, and making myriad consumer choices that add up to a prodigious whole. Yet what power do they enjoy compared to that of intransigent governments and wealthy companies? What difference do these individual choices make when coal power plants are still being built? Our mainstream eco-narrative finds itself mired in these tensions, stuck between the imperative to act and the inadequacy of its understanding of the causes of environmental breakdown. As disaster rages, the answer of the status quo is to accelerate or expand what it is already doing. More investment is needed, rapid deployment of increasingly brilliant technology, a greater purpose for businesses, persuasive campaigns reaching wider audiences, better consumer choices, changed voting patterns, new politicians, enforceable treaties, more facts, better arguments, less denial. For sure, more of all this is needed. But, as the clock ticks down, the storms grow, and birdsong fades, it is time to be honest about how it came to this. Let’s start by revisiting the story of the Rapa Nui.

The Stolen Future of the Rapa Nui

There is a problem with the ecocide narrative of Easter Island: it is untrue.⁸ Not only is this historically important, it also has profound implications for our contemporary understanding of environmental breakdown, and thus how we must act in the face of disaster. The real reason for the collapse of the Rapa Nui’s society can be traced back to Jacob Roggeveen’s voyage itself. One officer in his crew was struck by the island’s lushness, describing it as ‘a suitable and convenient place at which to obtain refreshment, as all the country is under cultivation and we saw in the distance whole tracts of woodland’.⁹ The island’s vibrant health at the time of European contact was further confirmed by a French visitor in 1786, who noticed a glaring contradiction with the stories of desolation disseminated by recent visitors:

The aspect of the island is by no means so barren and disgusting as navigators have asserted … the accounts given of the inhabitants appear equally incorrect … Instead of meeting with men exhausted by famine … I found, on the contrary, a considerable population, with more beauty and grace than I afterwards met with in any other island; and a soil, which, with very little labour, furnished excellent provisions, and in an abundance more than sufficient for the consumption of the inhabitants.¹⁰

While the island was almost completely deforested of native palm by the time of Europeans’ arrival, this wasn’t just the fault of the islanders. It was also a consequence of the voracious appetite of invasive rats, which had hitched a ride with the first colonisers.¹¹ Besides, the islanders used a variety of materials and techniques to cultivate gardens, fashion fish hooks and weave nets. Bountiful sea life was a primary source of nourishment and the islanders were observed as being ‘exceedingly expert in the various methods of capturing them’.¹² Cultural practices placed limits on the exploitation of fisheries,¹³ casting doubt on the accusation that the islanders suffered under the ‘tragedy of the commons’. Thus the native palm was of little consequence to the Rapa Nui – including when it came to moving the moai, which, oral tradition suggests, were engineered to be ‘walked’ to their final destination, not pushed over wooden rollers.¹⁴ In further contradiction to the mainstream narrative, evidence shows that the first people arrived in around 1200CE.¹⁵ Over the following 500 years the population most likely increased to some 3,000 inhabitants, at which level, due to the inherent limits afforded by the environment, it remained. The islanders did fundamentally change the island’s ecology, contributing to deforestation and other environmental degradation, erecting moai, and building homes and other structures. But many scholars of the island are today doubtful of the claim that the Rapa Nui’s environmental heedlessness drove the collapse of the island’s ecosystem.

A clue to what actually destroyed the island’s habitat lies in Roggeveen’s description of his landing:

We marched forward a little … when, quite unexpectedly and to our great astonishment, four or five shots were heard in our rear, together with a vigorous shout of, ‘it’s time, it’s time, fire!’ On this, as in a moment, more than thirty shots were fired, and the Indians, being thereby amazed and scared, took to flight, leaving 10 or 12 dead, besides the wounded.¹⁶

While Roggeveen was able to establish peaceful contact with the Rapa Nui, this first, deadly contact with Europeans did not augur well for the future. Over the next 140 years, more than fifty European ships may have called at the island and there were many instances of European visitors seeing its people as ‘sources of labour and, in the case of women, sexual satisfaction’.¹⁷ Whalers would abduct islanders to supplement crews and practise their marks-manship by indiscriminately shooting indigenous people. By the 1830s, it was reported that sexually transmitted diseases had become a serious problem on the island.¹⁸

Premeditated slave raids saw scores of men and women taken from the island. The Rapa Nui fought back, sometimes repelling invaders, but ultimately their efforts were futile. In October 1862 came the first in a series of devastating slave raids. By March 1863, over a thousand Rapa Nui had been captured by raiders and sold into slavery.¹⁹ Soon after, a handful of surviving islanders were repatriated, bringing smallpox, which ‘transformed the island into a vast charnel-house’. Following this, civil war and the collapse of the social order meant that ‘when the first missionaries settled on the island, they found a culture in its death throes: the religious and social system had been destroyed and a leaden apathy weighed down the survivors from these disasters.’²⁰ In the 1870s, ownership of the island was seized by European traders, who set about forcibly removing the remaining population, burning huts and destroying crops to ‘facilitate the persuasion of the starving natives who had thus little hope of surviving on their own island’.²¹ In 1888, the island was annexed by Chile, of which it remains a part, and was almost entirely reserved for sheep farming by a Scottish company. By the end of the Second World War, the island was home to tens of thousands of sheep who irrevocably changed its ecosystem, transforming it into a vast, indistinct meadow; today, less than 8 per cent of Easter Island’s wildlife consists of native species.²² In 1966, the Rapa Nui were given Chilean citizenship. They are still, to this day, fighting for the right to their ancestral home.

Capitalism and Power, Coal and Slavery

The treatment of the Rapa Nui and the island at the hands of Western whalers, slave traders, missionaries and sheep farmers was described by Alfred Métraux, the eminent Swiss-Argentine ethnographer, as ‘one of the most hideous atrocities committed by white men in the South Seas’.²³ A growing body of scientific evidence backs up this alternative narrative and a consensus is emerging that runs contrary to the ecocide hypothesis. In better understanding what drove the Rapa Nui to catastrophe, we find a story that is even more relevant to the current conjuncture.

History is littered with examples of misuse of local environments to the point of depletion or total destruction. Recent instances include overfishing, leading to the abrupt collapse of Atlantic cod populations in the early 1990s, and contemporary water crises afflicting cities across the world. In the extreme, this misuse could be a major factor contributing to the collapse of societies. Overexploitation of the ‘carrying capacity’ of local environments can exceed critical ecological limits. Fertile soils can be lost, rivers poisoned, fuel supplies exhausted. In turn, famine and strife can feed into existing political and economic instability, driving war and the breakdown of social institutions. This could be partly for the reasons featured in the orthodox story of the Rapa Nui: selfishness; short-termism; reckless use of damaging technologies; the pitfalls of how societies are organised and make decisions; the ‘tragedy of the commons’. But it cannot be these alone. Ot...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Halftitle Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Introduction
• 1. This Is about Power
• 2. Facing the Crisis
• 3. Beyond the Ruins
• 4. After Empire
• 5. Financing Plenty
• 6. Owning the Future
• 7. Commoning the Earth
• 8. Thriving Not Surviving
• 9. A Politics for Life
• Acknowledgements
• Notes